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5
The
Common
School
and the
Threat
of
Cultural
Pluralism
In
the
1830s,
the
desire
to
establish public schools
as a
means
of
creating
a
com-
mon
culture
was
heightened
by
increased immigration, particularly
by the
immi-
gration
of
Irish Catholics. Discriminated against
by the
English, Irish Catholics
threatened Protestant domination
of
American culture.
The
growth
of
public
schools paralleled
the
growth
of the
immigrant
and
enslaved populations.
The
common school movement
of the
1830s
and
1840s was,
in
part,
an
attempt
to
halt
the
drift
toward
a
multicultural society. Self-proclaimed protectors
of
Protestant Anglo-American culture worried about
the
Irish immigrants stream-
ing
ashore,
the
growing numbers
of
enslaved
Africans,
and the
racial
violence
occurring
in
northern cities between
freed
Africans
and
whites. Also during
the
1830s, President Andrew Jackson implemented
his final
solution
for
acquiring
the
lands
of the
southern Indians
by
forcing
the
tribes
off
their lands
and
remov-
ing
them
to an
area west
of the
Mississippi. Upon completion
of
this forced
removal,
the
government
was to
"civilize"
the
southern tribes through
a
system
of
segregated schools.
In
addition
to the
concern about
the
risk posed
to
Anglo-
American culture, there
was a
hysterical
fear
among European Americans during
the
common school period that Africans
and
Indians would contaminate white
blood.
This
fear
resulted
in a
demand
by
some whites
for
laws forbidding inter-
racial marriages.
Many
New
Englanders hoped common schools would eradicate these "sav-
age" cultures.
The
sensuous
and
emotional rhythms
of
African
and
Indian drums
and
the
incense
and
ritual
of the
Irish Catholic Church
offered
a
stark contrast
to
the
stiff,
repressed,
and
self-righteous
way of
life
of
white
New
Englanders. With
the
possibility
of a
multicultural
society
existing
in
North America, many Euro-
pean Americans hoped
the
common
school
would assure that
the
United States
was
dominated
by a
unified
Protestant Anglo-Saxon culture.
As
Carl Kaestle argues
in
Pillars
of the
Republic: Common Schools
and
American
Society,
1780-1860,
the
common
school
movement
was
primarily
106
CHAPTER
5: The
Common School
and the
Threat
of
Cultural Pluralism
107
designed
to
protect
the
ideology
of an
American Protestant culture. Most
of the
common
school
reformers, Kaestle documents, were native-born Anglo-American
Protestants,
and
their public philosophy
"called
for
government action
to
provide
schooling that would
be
more common, more equal, more dedicated
to
public
policy,
and
therefore more
effective
in
creating cultural
and
political values center-
ing
on
Protestantism, republicanism,
and
capitalism."
THE
INCREASING
MULTICULTURAL
POPULATION
OF THE
UNITED
STATES
The
following tables show
the
increasing complexity
of the
U.S. population dur-
ing
the
development
and
expansion
of
public schools
from
the
1830s
to the
1850s.
It
is
possible,
but not
necessarily provable, that public schools expanded
in
order
to
create
a
common culture
and
language.
In
1830,
six
years
before Horace Mann
became secretary
of the
Massachusetts Board
of
Education, immigration expanded
from
Ireland
and
Germany
as
indicated
in
Table
5.1.
The
reader will recall
from
Chapter
3
that
in
1790 60.9 percent
of
free
whites were
of
English ancestry,
80
percent
had
English-speaking ancestry,
and
about
75
percent were Protestant.
The
reader
can see
from
Table
5.1
that immigration almost quadrupled between
the
decades
1820-1830
(151,824 immigrants)
and
1831-1840
(599,125 immigrants).
During
the
1820-1830
period
the
majority
of
immigrants
still
came
from
England
(about
59
percent).
But
this dramatically changed between
1831-1840
with
the
increase
in
German immigration
to
25.4 percent
of the
total
immigration, reducing
the
number
of
immigrants
from
England
to
about
39
percent.
The
percentage
of
immigrants
that
did not
come
from
England,
as
indicated
in
Table 5.2, rose
to 72
percent
by
1850.
The
domination
of
immigrants
by
Irish
and
Germans during
the
early common
school period
of
1830-1840
threatened
the
Protestant
majority
among
free
whites.
Almost
all
Irish during this period were Catholic
while
Germans were
a
mixture
of
Jews, Catholics,
and
Protestants. Also,
the
increased German immigration
increased
the
number
of
free
whites whose
first
language
was not
English.
Adding
to the
possible anxiety about
multiculturalism
among
free
whites were
the
growing
numbers
of the
nonwhite
population.
As
indicated
in
Tables
5.3 and
5.4,
the
number
of
enslaved
African
Americans increased
from
2,009,050
in
1830
to
3,953,760
in
1860,
while
the
number
of
free
African
Americans increased
from
319,576
in
1830
to
488,070
in
1860.
And as I
discuss
in
more detail
in
Chapter
7,
an
Asian population began
to
develop
as the
result
of the
California gold rush.
Not
included
in
these tables
or in the
U.S. Census
for
these decades
was a
grow-
ing
Mexican American population
as a
result
of the
Mexican-American War.
I
discuss this Mexican American population
and
their educational experiences
in
more
detail
in
Chapter
7.
TABLE
5.1.
Immigration
to the
United
States
from
Countries
Other
Than
England
by
National Origin,
1820-1860
Total
and
National Origin
by
Decade
Numbers
of
Immigrants
Percentage
of
Total
Immigration
Total
Number
of
Immigrants
1820-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
Ireland
1820-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
Germany
1820-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
Scandinavia (Sweden,
Norway,
Denmark)
1820-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
Italy
1820-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
Greece
and
Turkey
1820-1830
1831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
151,824
599,125
1,713,251
2,598,214
54,338
207,381
780,719
914,119
7,729
152,454
434,626
951,667
283
2,264
14,442
24,680
439
2,253
1,870
9,231
41
56
75
114
100%
100
100
100
35.7
34.6
45.5
35.1
5.0
25.4
25.3
36.6
0.18
0.37
0.25
0.94
0.28
0.37
0.10
0.35
0.02
0.009
0.004
0.004
CHAPTER
5: The
Common
School
and the
Threat
of
Cultural
Pluralism
109
TABLE
5.2. Approximate Percentage
of
Non-English Immigrants
to the
United
States,
1820-1860
Approximate Percentage
of
Non-English
Decade Immigrants
to the
United States
1820-1830
41.2%
1831-1840
60.7
1841-1850
72.05
1851-1860
72.9
Source:
Calculations based
on
previous Table
5.1,
Immigration
to the
United States
from
Countries Other Than
England
by
National Origin,
1820-1860.
TABLE
5.3. Free
and
Slave Population
of the
United States
by
Race, 1830 Census
Percentage
of
Total
Status
and
Race Population Population
Total
Population
Free White
Free
Black
Slaves
12,858,670
10,530,044
319,576
2,009,050
100%
81.9
2.5
15.6
Source: Abstract
of the
Returns
of the
Fifth
Census, Showing
the
Number
of
Free
People,
The
Number
of
Slaves
(Washington,
DC:
Duff
Green, 1832),
p. 47.
TABLE
5.4. Free, Slave, Native American,
and
Asian Population
of the
United
States,
1860
Percentage
of
Total
Status
and
Race Population Population
Total Population
Free White
Free
Black
Slaves
Native Americans
Asian
31,443,321
26,922,537
488,070
3,953,760
44,021
34,933
100%
85.6
1.6
12.6
0.1
0.1
Source:
Calculated
and
complied
from
tables provided
in
Roger Daniels,
Coming
to
America:
A
History
of
Immigration
and
Ethnicity
in
American
Life,
2nd ed.
(New York: Perennial, 2002),
pp.
124, 129, 146, 165, 189, 202.
Source:
Campbell Gibson
and Kay
Jung,
Historical Census Statistics
on
Population
Totals
by
Race,
1790
to
1990,
and
by
Hispanic Origin,
1970
to
1990,
for the
United
States, Regions, Divisions,
and
States
(Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Census
Bureau,
2002),
Table
F-l.
108
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