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This era, however, would see more than just the political carousel start to spin once again. This would also be a scene of necessity and reforms, both of which would directly challenge all three branches of government and dominate conversation from the factory, to the pub, to the home. What may have been even more unexpected than the reforms themselves was who was leading them—women, church-sponsored organizations, and other such less-aggressive voices that had previously been drowned out under the expectations of Republican Motherhood. What was providing them with this new influence were the changing nature of the American market, the new structure of the home, and even expansion westward. The gains of the Jeffersonian era were not the expansion expected by so many, however. As the nation took new shape, there came a series of new voices. Arguably the loudest voice from this era would become the most impactful to America’s future: the abolition debate.
The American Factory
With all of this innovation, what changes promoted industry in the pre-industrial United States? One of the more significant was the earliest form of common factory, the mill, perhaps the most famous of which was located in Lowell, Massachusetts. This company was not only notable for its production, which spanned the full gambit of textile production, or the worker population, which was overwhelmingly unmarried young women. This mill was also notable because of how these women, who were drastically underpaid for their efforts, would lead some of the first, though generally unsuccessful, strikes in American history.
It was very common for families in pre-industrial America to have and raise large families. This was due to several factors, including labor needs, religious beliefs, gender expectations, and infant mortality rates. As technology improved, both on the farm and in production, families continued to grow, but family land became scarce. With it becoming increasingly difficult to raise such large families, mills such as Lowell would crop up as a new employment option. They often had built-in dorms, recreation opportunities, and very strict moral codes/rules (as part of the appeal for parental consent). All of this was a luxury, but it was also an excuse to lower the pay for women doing the same work a man would be paid more to do in cruder environments.
Though it may not seem directly related, it would be the words of noted reform leaders Sarah and Angelina Grimké, daughters of a prosperous plantation owner and planter, speaking on behalf of the abolitionist crusade, that would inspire workers to look at their own situation. Moving into the mid-1830s, the situation became worse with the lowering price of cotton. Following demands for pay cuts and greater output, the women united and went on strike against the factory. Ultimately, however, it would be a seemingly neverending supply of replacement workers that allowed the demands of these workers to fall on deaf ears. As women aged, those who rebelled would leave or be replaced, and eventually immigrant labor would gladly take the work, as many had migrated from lands with significantly less economic opportunity, especially for women.
The Rising Middle Class
While Jackson’s “Chuck Norris” style of government was often the headliner during this era, his was not the only influence of note. With the Market Revolution, the family expectation shifted, and with the help of reform movements, the spheres of expectation started to contour.
The Market Revolution had an unexpected side effect, as it took what was once a very small population of citizens who fit neither the upper- nor the lower-class models, and quickly boosted the middle class into a significant population that changed expectations, dress, society, and convention. These men were now more commonly in semi-managerial positions, whereas they had previously been single entrepreneurs or skilled labor. Those in these positions now earned enough to support a small family and worked a schedule that allowed for such luxuries.
Women started to move out of the workplace. Mothering again became an understood profession, as it ensured the success of future generations, like it had under the height of Republican Motherhood. General responsibilities of the wife included the careful education of the children and keeping the house a refuge from the unforgiving world. Even for families on the lower end of this new class, the one-payroll household was common, though in earnest, many times the house became a place of business for women (e.g., laundry, sewing, teaching, boarding, cooking) while the husband was out. Family sizes shrunk drastically. No longer on the farm or needing cheap, trustworthy labor, huge families were much rarer, but not without some controversy. Though intended to ensure that the husband’s wage would suffice for the middle-class lifestyle, this often led to dangerous procedures and actions by women to ensure that the family stayed the ideal size, including abortion, which quickly resulted in questions and conflicts with religion and morality.
Religion Influences Reform
Religion would also adapt to this new culture. Women vastly outnumbered men in church attendance, including young boys, but with a new sense of morality came a revised religious expectation. That expectation spread in a series of revivals known as the Second Great Awakening. Like the First Great Awakening, this series of religious gatherings was intended to whitewash corruption of the past, spread the word to a new generation, and put families back into the pews. Once again, this was a success. Congregation attendance skyrocketed, and the main attraction was a former lawyer from New York named Charles Finney. Finney used the urban sins to attract and provoke his would-be congregations, and he even used Jackson’s successful methods to focus people’s attentions against the dangers of lewdness and drink.
From religious teachings to outright moral reform, women too would take the stage as prominent figures in this evolving American scene. Now no longer constrained by factory labor or massive families, women could campaign for their ideal nation, just as the mill girls had done before. Women, especially those of recent immigration, knew that one of the most prominent and dangerous vices was alcohol. Drinking was everywhere, and civic or cultural norms lured fathers, sons, husbands, and brothers into the pub on a daily basis. To put it into perspective, the estimated amount of drinking taking place back then doubles even the most prominent issues today. This is especially true in urban environments with easy access and limited need for driving or operation of complicated machinery.
Lyman Beecher, a minister from Connecticut, would form the American Temperance Society, but it would be women who made it successful. Men would be faced with messages of temperance at work, and women would reinforce the message at home. However, the most successful deterrent ended up being money. In the same pattern, moral reform would attack sexual deviance, including direct action to deter stimuli for such behaviors as public prostitution. As discussed earlier, the ultimate goal was to create a nation that promoted civil, equal behaviors for all, regardless of class, creed, gender, or race.
Seneca Falls
As determined as women were about temperance, there was unfortunately still limited success in attracting the necessary attention or support to gain lasting change. What was not lost, however, was the passion for this reform. Even toward the middle of the century, new faces and events prompted further discussion.
One of the most significant of these events would take place at Seneca Falls, New York, where Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott would preside over more than 300 likeminded supporters to draft a Declaration of Sentiments, outlining the goals of the convention and reform. This document, a clear comparison to the Declaration of Independence, made a very loud point about excluding genderspecific perspectives from American society. The range of demands was wide and almost universal; the lone exception was also the most cumbersome: the right to vote. Suffrage was essential to these women’s plans because no matter how loud their voices were, they still had no say in politics and thus no guarantee for change. Who would prove to be another key voice attempting to unite reformers towards this goal? Interestingly enough, it would be the leader from another prominent movement, Mr. Frederick Douglass, who was a major author and orator in the cause for race equality.