SLO 4d) Demonstrate the knowledge necessary to make choices that
Levels
promote sustained health and well-being.
A 3-7 page paper with minimum of one epidemiological study sources
on some topic(s) of life span epidemiology.
Performance Indicators
1
2
Explains life span epidemiology.
Explains the importance of life span epidemiology in providing
information that can be used to make excellent health and well-being
choices.
Summarizes information from these studies with the purpose of making
informed choices related to sustained health and well-being.
Describes the choices that logically follow from the summarized
information.
In your groups you should now have reviewed three studies on your group's topic. Use
these reviews and more if you like/need to create a research paper.
The purpose of this paper is to make a health decision related to your topic, based on
your group's anlaysis of the results of three different studies on your topic.
Use APA style. If you are not familiar with APA style, there are numerous online sources
that can quickly help you with this aspect. I have included one in this content area.
Members of groups should have similar papers, but not identical ones. Put the
information from past reviews in your own words for your final paper. 3 The research Questions are in the context of the research on the conditions of the Dementia of
Alzheimer's Type (DAT) patients. DAT patients have the tendency to leave their places where
they live or are stationed like their homes or Hospitals or Nursing centres. The researcher
principally used the statistical methods to compare the data. Researchers performed the
conducted behavioural studies on (DAT) patients. These patients had been undergone some sort
of search & Rescue (SAR) effort. The outcome of the behavioural studies was then compared to
the behaviour of a group of elder people who were lost but had normal cognitive ability. The data
of these groups were obtained from Virginia Department of Emergency Service. The variables
which were used number of lost patients, age, gender, race, last time patient was observed, date
lost and location type, straight line distance travelled.
The study type employed by the researchers is the retrospective study. The researchers informed
that they used the retrospective study since from the year 1986 onwards when the first ever state
recorded mission was started and the study ended in the month of January of the year 1992.
Since it covered a big period of 6 years, so some duplicate records were detected. The duplicates
were removed and finally the study closed in to precisely 295 cases. Since researchers had to
cover a substantial number of cases to come up to some conclusion in the context of the research
so they had to include the retrospective study. So I think this was the best method available for
them to use.
Some sources of errors could have affected the data collection and thereby impacting the results.
Researchers informed that they did not want to take those cases that had some record of dementia
not related to the Alzheimer's disease. Apart, from this dementia can also be caused by diseases
like Multi-Infarct or Parkinson's disease and so the attempt needs to be made to differentiate
between these cases so as to arrive at more precise patient profiles. Another source of the error is
that the authorities at Virginia state mission report the case only when the local effort could not
find the patient back. So the actual data could be much higher and different in nature than the
collected data. There can be other variable which might have been ignored by the researchers. It has also been
mentioned by the researchers that they did not use and hard and fast rule or rigid rules for the
data inclusion. This means that they had perhaps no way to determine exactly that were the
patients having the dementia exactly due to Alzheimer's disease or probably due to another cause
like Parkinson’s disease. Since this was a retrospective nature so perhaps they could not use rigid
criteria. It might have been possible to do some more research to get the disease type variable
which may have lacked the full attention. Past history of the patient could have been extracted.
Such variable may perhaps have some impact as in the paper itself it is mentioned that there is no
particular field in the collection form from the authorities that would specifically represent DAT. Validity means that the data collected is reliable and is purely under the context and scope of the
research. If the data is collected about some patient suffering from dementia but there is no way one can say for sure that it is DAT, so the data will not be valid in the scope of this research.
Invalid data will result into unreliable results. It was observed by the researchers that incident
Commander did not have much training to ascertain for sure that the data is valid and pertains to
DAT. So the form in which they collected the data had no specific question related to DAT
descriptions. Hence the validity was totally voluntary in nature for the data compiler to fill in
about the DAT description.
Since the study does not focus on the lifestyle of the DAT Patients or what were the circumstance
which led to those disease, so it difficult for us to follow some guidelines to undertake a better
lifestyle. Since this study was basically a retrospective study, and the patients were found or
placed by someone in the nursing homes, so it is difficult to get more information about the
patients. Moreover the main scope of the research was to find the difference between one group
having DAT and other a normal group who were lost victims, so it does not propose anything
about the dos and don’ts which can help us to guide someone to adopt a suitable lifestyle. The research and the methods cited can be replicated. I do not think that someone may have done
exactly the same research, but, yes the researcher have followed some research pattern which
resembles the pattern followed by the researcher in the context of this research paper. The
researcher has indeed added the value to identify the traits of the DAT patients. For instance, they
have identified the process and the research methods. They have also used the retrospective study
involving 6 years and around 300 patients. There research method and style is convincing and
this is clear enough to be replicated as the records which they have used can be looked again as
they belong to the Virginia Department of Emergency Service. As it was highlighted that the research method and style is convincing and this is clear enough to
be replicated as the records which the researchers have used can be looked again since they come
from the Virginia Department of Emergency Service. New researcher may replicate this research
and attempt to add the value to this research by adding more variables. Most of the records are
collected from the retrospective study and some of the patients have died or they are not in the
condition to reveal more. If some other researcher conducts a study, he may just add-on some
more value to the research. It is also possible that they come up with different results as the
researcher have pointed that there are some issues with the existing reporting and the data the
source of data they have taken. Lifespan epidemiology is the study of long term health hazards or disease risk caused by an
individual’s physical and social exposures during his or her gestation, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood
and later adult life period. This study addresses the issue about how an outcome may have had multiple
origins. Also, this study underlines the importance of finding how chronic diseases may not have specific origin
but develop over time during our life period and caused not just by the environment and biology, but also by
culture and social condition. People tend to rely more on the curative method than preventive method. Also, many diseases often
do not explicitly show where it first originated from. Thus, in lack of knowledge about how to prevent it from
originating, we ignore the disease until it is fully developed and then we begin to cure it. Lifespan
epidemiology attempts to reveal that some chronic diseases develop over time because of our physical and
social exposure since the beginning of time. Understanding that not just one thing, but our lifestyle, thinking,
environment and culture also play a significant role in our later health outcome will help us make wise health
decisions from the beginning. Health decisions such as eating a balanced diet, consuming less chemically
treated food, exercising regularly, meditating etc. could be implemented from the early time to prevent many
chronic diseases from developing in the rate it is right now. As people go through aging, they encounter multitude of cognitive changes. Some of these cognitive
changes include the delay in processing speed, working memory, inductive reasoning, word fluency and so on.
One of the most noted complaints among even the healthiest older adults is decline in memory performance
(Bassett & Folstein,...) Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly ACTIVE was a study that
tried to research if we can mitigate the issue of memory performance through cognitive training and external
aids. In the ACTIVE study, the effect of cognitive training intervention on basic measures of cognition was
conducted using both objective and subjective memory performance. The present study, however, analyzed
the association between objective memory performance and subjective memory performance over a five-year
period. Using this analysis they also found out that change in objective memory performance has some
association with the change in self-reported frequency of forgetting. They also found out that individuals who
were white and female and had more years of formal education used external aids more frequently. In addition
to this, subjects who didn’t often use external aids increased their use in later years. They, however, didn’t find
the relationship between external aids and memory performance. It's just people who detected their memory
limitations used external aids. The study was a prospective cohort study. We also thought that prospective cohort study was the right
study for this purpose because in order to find the rate of memory depletion in the cohorts, we have to start
the study prior to any decline symptoms of memory hinderance. The sample population that was taken from
the sample population gathered by an ACTIVE study consisted of 2802 healthy, independently-living older
adults. The sample size is big enough so the results can be used for generalization. This study is true if it incorporated people from all over the country or the world, depending on the population targeted by the
researchers. The population was analyzed with respect to their age, race, sex, and formal education. The age
of the cohort ranged from 65 - 94 years. There were 75% women, 73% whites, average year of formal
education among the cohort was 13.5 years. In the ACTIVE study, the cohort was divided randomly into four groups where one group with 703
participants was trained in memory, 699 in reasoning, 702 in processing speed and 698 had no contacts. At
first, in the interval of 5-6 weeks, the treatment group had to go through 10 training sessions and then
followed up at the time interval of 1,2,3 and 5 years. The follow up consisted of questionnaire and tests that is
briefly explained below. The study has taken effort to randomize the group and divide them equally. The time interval is also
long enough with good time interval. The study also made sure that the cohorts did not display significant
impairment or dementia, using the indicator given my Mini-Mental State Exam. Once again bias caused by
misclassification is reduced here since it was the result of exam that classified the cohorts, not a person’s
judgement. The population did include more women than men (75% women) and more whites than other
races (73% whites) however, the sex and race didn’t have significant relation with memory performance. The
study, however, doesn’t mention where the sample population was gathered from. It is not sure if they
belonged to same hospital, same city, same state or one country. This could invite some generalization and
limitation biases. In this study, the objective memory performance was calculated using various tests. They used 1. Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, 2. Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and 3. Rivermead Behavioral Memory TestParagraph Recall. These tests are also known as the three measures of episodic verbal memory performance.
The scores for each test were first standardized to their baseline mean and averaged to a composite memory
measure for analysis. For the subjective memory performance, however, they relied first on Memory
Functioning Questionnaire(MFQ) and then on self-report inventory that assess how they evaluate their own
memory. Some questionnaires encouraged participants to remember phone numbers, personal dates, things
other people tell them and so on. In other questionnaires, the participants were questioned if they used
external aids such as notebook, reminder and so on to remember things. These subjective answers were
converted into number as they would say 7 for never and 1 for always. This could invite some issues since self
reports aren’t very accurate even though they had a way to convert verbal answers into numbers. The results
derived from MFQ, however, could aid them in overcoming biases brought by the self-reports. Thus, the
questions that the study was hoping to answer could indeed be evaluated using the tests mentioned above.
There are many sources of bias that may have played a role in distorting the results of the study, for example,
respondent bias, research bias, and habituation. An example of respondent bias is acquiescence bias which
occurs when a respondent shows a tendency to agree with and be sure about whatever the mediator presents.
At the end of the day, they think each thought is a decent one and can see themselves loving, purchasing and
following up on each circumstance that is proposed. A few people have passive identities, while others submit in light of the fact that they see the
questioner to be a specialist. Acquiescence is the path of least resistance, as it requires less exertion than thoroughly measuring every alternative. This path escalates if weakness sets in and some people will agree just
to finish the meeting. To stay away from it, specialists must supplant questions that suggest there is a correct
answer with those that concentrate on the respondent's actual perspective. Another type of bias is confirmation bias which falls under research bias. Confirmation bias one of the
longest-perceived and most unavoidable types of disposition in research. Confirmation bias happens when a
specialist structures a theory or belief and uses the respondents’ data to affirm that belief. This happens in the
moment as specialists or researchers ' judge and weight reactions that affirm their theories as pertinent and
solid, while rejecting proof that does not boost a theory. Confirmation bias then reaches out into the
examination, with analysts having a tendency to recollect points that boost their theory and points that
invalidate different theories. Confirmation bias is profoundly situated in the natural inclinations that individuals use to comprehend
and channel data, which frequently prompt to concentrating on one speculation at any given moment. To
confirmation bias, analysts should persistently rethink impressions of respondents and test prior assumptions
and theories. This bias is not severe enough to render the study so questionable because they are just like
barriers that affect the process of the research and does not highly interfere with the results. There are some lurking variables which were not included in the illustration or the response variable
in the research. However, these variables can still have an impact on the understanding the correlations
between variables. One disadvantage of these lurking variables is that they can hide the true relationship. In
this particular research, lurking variables include intelligence, drug abuse, and mental disorders. Intelligence will affect memory performance and memory perception because intelligence involves the different abilities
that individuals have to get and use knowledge and skills which in turn affect memory performance. Drug abuse also affects memory perception because it brings about hallucinations and impaired
judgments. Mental diseases might also affect the way an individual perceive things in a normal way. For
example, some disorders make individuals view things that do not exist, that is being far from reality. Such
variables might play an important role in determining the results as they affect the memory directly. The
research is reliable because it has produced a stable and a consistent result which might be very helpful for
anyone who will read this information. The research is also valid as it measures exactly what it is intended to
measure. However, the research is not 100% valid the methods used in collecting and analyzing the data might
not have given out perfect results. This simply means that the study was conducted in a way that would not
motivate me to change my lifestyle habit if needed so as to avoid a particular ailment or to maintain a healthy
lifestyle. Other researchers have conducted the research and gotten a similar result. The only thing that the
other research have to change are the subjects but the techniques of conducting the research should not be
changed. The researchers will apply the current hypothesis to new circumstances keeping in mind the end goal
to decide generalizability to various variables including the lurking variables. The study should be replicated so
as to make sure that the outcomes are reliable and valid, to decide the role of the superfluous variable, to
apply the past outcomes to new circumstances and to rouse new research brushing past discoveries from
related reviews. However, for the research to be replicated, there must be some factors such as including modification
of the original study on the basis of current knowledge. It is not possible for different researchers to yield
conflicting results concerning the study question because different researchers use the same methods in
conducting their research which in most cases gives the same results. Nevertheless, original research questions
are very vital as they contribute in forming the body information of a given replicated research.

 

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