PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BUL ETIN
What are the Independent and Dependent Variable(s) and the hypotheses?
10.1 7 /0146167204271651 PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BUL ETIN Levine et al. / IDENTITY AND EMERGENCY INTERVENTION Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior Mark Levine Amy Prosser David Evans Lancaster University Stephen Reicher St. Andrews University Two experiments exploring the effects of social category member- ship on real-life helping behavior are reported. In Study 1, inter- group rivalries between soccer fans are used to examine the role of identity in emergency helping. An injured stranger wearing an in-group team shirt is more likely to be helped than when wearing a rival team shirt or an unbranded sports shirt. In Study 2, a more inclusive social categorization is made salient for potential helpers. Helping is extended to those who were previously identi- fied as out-group members but not to those who do not display signs of group membership. Taken together, the studies show the importance of both shared identity between bystander and victim and the inclusiveness of salient identity for increasing the likeli- hood of emergency intervention. Keywords: social identity; group membership; emergency interven- tion; helping O ver the past 40 years, social psychologists have iden- tified a number of factors that shape the likelihood of help being offered in an emergency situation. These include the number of people present (Darley & Latané, 1968; Latané & Darley, 1970), the location of the inci- dent (R. Levine, Martinez, Brase, & Sorenson, 1994; Milgram, 1970), and the costs of helping (J. Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner, & Clark, 1981). For the most part,psy- chological explanations for emergency intervention have tended to be subsumed within general theories of helping behavior (but see Latané, 1981, for an alter- native account). For example, the arousal cost-reward model (Dovidio, Piliavin, Gaertner, Schroeder, & Clark, 1991; J. Piliavin et al., 1981; I. Piliavin, Rodin, & Piliavin, 1969) begins with the aversive arousal caused by the dis- tress of others in need. In this model, it is the balance of cost-reward calculations made by an individual (as a means to reduce aversive arousal) that explains helping behavior. Batson’s empathy-altruism model (Batson, 1987, 1991; Batson et al.,1989; Batson & Shaw, 1991) also focuses on the place of emotion in helping. The empathy- altruism model argues that helping is related to the empathetic concern an individual feels (defined as an emotional reaction characterized by feelings like com- passion, tenderness, softheartedness, and sympathy) for others. Batson’s primary aim is to argue that empathy- based helping provides evidence for genuine altruism or selflessness in the motivation to help others. Recent work concerning both of these models has begun to move from a focus on individual and interper- sonal factors to exploring the importance of group and intergroup processes in helping. What is at issue in these debates is the conceptual possibility of shared identities (Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Tajfel & Turner, 1985; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987). Arguments center on the degree to which the bystander and the victim can be said to share a common identity and the role this common identity 443 Authors’ Note: This research was supported by Economic and Social Research Council Grant L133 25 1054 under its Violence Research Program. Address correspondence to Dr. Mark Levine, Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, United Kingdom; e-mail: m.levine@lancaster.ac.uk. PSPB, Vol. 31 No. 4, April 2005 443-453 DOI: 10.1177/0146167204271651 © 2005 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. by guest on March 28, 2016 psp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
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