How Gender Stereotypes Affect Reactions to Working Mothers
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Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 68, No. 4, 2012, pp. 704--724 The “Bad Parent” Assumption: How Gender Stereotypes Affect Reactions to Working Mothers Tyler G. Okimoto ∗ The University of Queensland Madeline E. Heilman New York University Although balancing work and family commitments is a significant source of strain for working parents, working mothers in traditionally male positions face addi- tional anxiety due to unfounded assumptions about their competence as employees, assumptions rooted in gender stereotypes. However, stereotype-based assumptions can also bias competence impressions of these working mothers in family domains, depicting them as bad parents. In four experimental studies, we documented ev- idence that working mothers are seen as less effective parents than nonworking mothers. Consistent with the argument that gender stereotypes underlie these find- ings, the bad parent assumption was apparent only for mothers and not fathers (Study 1), only when working in a male sex-typed occupation (Study 2), more intensely when job success was clear (Study 3), and only when working out of personal choice (Study 4). Similar patterns were observed in ratings of interper- sonal appeal (e.g., likability, friend desirability, coworker desirability), relational judgments suggesting that there are also negative social consequences for working mothers. Commonly cited pressures facing working parents are often attributed to the time constraints imposed by both work and family obligations and the commitment trade-off they produce (e.g., Cooke & Rousseau, 1984; Gutek, Repetti, & Silver, 1988; Kandel, Davies, & Raveis, 1985). Consequently, many of the work/family policies instituted by organizations focus on alleviating (or being flexible with) the time demands of their employees who have children. But working parents face ∗ Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tyler G. Okimoto, UQ Busi- ness School, The University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia [e-mail: t.okimoto@ business.uq.edu.au]. 704 C ± 2012 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
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