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Ancient Greek Philosophers Milestone Sophia Course
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1
When Socrates is asked about suicide in the Phaedo, he replies that __________.
·
the body is eternal and cannot die
·
philosophers must always be prepared for death
·
it is man’s choice to live or to die
·
our bodies belong to the gods
RATIONALE
In the Phaedo, Socrates contends that suicide is immoral. He argues that the bodies of men belong to the gods, and that only the gods can choose to end a life.
CONCEPT
The Phaedo: The Death of Socrates
2
Water is a __________ condition for staying alive.
Apply conceptual analysis to this statement and choose the answer that correctly describes the relationship.
·
neither necessary nor sufficient
·
both necessary and sufficient
·
necessary, not sufficient
·
sufficient, not necessary
RATIONALE
Water is a logical requirement for staying alive, therefore it is a necessary condition. However, water is not a logical guarantee for staying alive, so it is not a sufficient condition.
CONCEPT
Plato: An academic approach to concepts
3
Which of the following statements about the atomistic worldview is FALSE?
·
Everything in the universe exists as a single atom, or a collection of atoms.
·
The worldview of philosophical atomists, with some revisions, has been adopted by contemporary science.
·
Philosophical atoms of different shapes and consistencies are the fundamental components of reality.
·
The philosophical worldview of the early Greek atomists had great influence on philosophical, scientific, and religious thinking, but only for a brief period of time.
RATIONALE
The philosophical worldview of the early Greek atomists has continued to have an impact throughout history. Atomism has been adopted and modified by contemporary science, and has had a lasting influence on religion and theology.
CONCEPT
The Atomistic Worldview
4
Which of the following statements about the Crito is FALSE?
·
The Social Contract made it unethical for Socrates to escape his punishment.
·
Athens performed its end of the Social Contract; Socrates was required to do the same.
·
Following the advice of experts is more ethical than appealing the majority.
·
Socrates argued that civil disobedience was an obligation for intellectuals and philosophers.
RATIONALE
In the Crito, Socrates argues against the concept of civil disobedience. In an imagined dialogue between him and Athens, Socrates says "But he who has experience of the manner in which we order justice and administer the state, and still remains, has entered into an implied contract that he will do as we command him." In other words, a person who has benefited from the protection and privileges provided by a state, and who has not sought to change its laws or leave its jurisdiction, must accept its judgement. This is an early expression of the concept of the Social Contract.
CONCEPT
The Crito: The Duties of the Social Contract
5
The philosophical value of the Socratic Method is described in all of the following statements, EXCEPT:
·
Students answer questions to which they know the answers, and are led by the teacher to new truths.
·
The emphasis is on finding truth, not on “winning” an argument.
·
The Socratic Method guides students to understanding rather than requiring them to memorize facts.
·
Students learn from interacting with each other, and the teacher facilitates this process.
RATIONALE
The Socratic Method does not facilitate learning through students' interaction with one another. Rather, it is an exchange between student and teacher, in which the teacher uses the student's knowledge to guide him or her to truth.
CONCEPT
The Socratic Approach
6
Perhaps the most important way in which Socrates changed the course of Western philosophy was by focusing on __________.
·
cosmology
·
natural philosophy
·
martyrdom
·
moral philosophy
RATIONALE
Ethics and morality were the primary focus of Socrates's philosophical inquiry. He is considered to have been the first "moral philosopher," who was deeply interested in how to determine right and wrong.
CONCEPT
Socrates: The Father of Western Philosophy
7
Which of the following statements about Aristotle’s metaphysics is FALSE?
·
Examining the nature of being, and knowing what kinds of things exist, is a sensible beginning point for philosophical inquiry.
·
In order for a statement to be true, one must state that an object exists, what the object is, and the state in which it exists.
·
Humans have the natural capacity to know many things without divine revelation or empirical evidence.
·
The distinction between form and matter is purely conceptual— one does not, and cannot, exist without the other.
RATIONALE
Aristotle would agree with all of these statements except the suggestion that we can have knowledge without empirical evidence. To Aristotle, all knowledge is grounded in human experience and flows from empirical evidence.
CONCEPT
Aristotle on What There Is
8
Kendra believes that women have a right to choose to have an abortion.
Select the statement that is consistent with Kendra's belief.
·
“I voted for this presidential candidate because she supports a woman's right to have an abortion.”
·
"The man should have an equal say in whether or not a woman ends her pregnancy.”
·
“Some women use abortion as a form of birth control, which is wrong.”
·
“Every woman should be a mother; it is our function and purpose as human beings.”
RATIONALE
To live philosophically, a person must examine his or her beliefs to ground them in knowledge, and then act according to those beliefs. By voting for a presidential candidate who supports a woman's right to have an abortion, Kendra displays a consistent philosophical worldview.
CONCEPT
Philosophical Analysis as a Way of Life
9
What kind of a thing is an orchid? It is a type of flower. What distinguishes an orchid from other flowers? The female and male parts of an orchid are fused together.
According to Aristotle, answering both of these questions reveals the __________ of an orchid.
·
ontology
·
organization
·
genus
·
essence
RATIONALE
According to Aristotle, we can discover and describe essences by identifying a genus and a differentia. The genus (in this example, a flower) tells us what kind of thing an orchid is. The differentia tells us what sets an orchid apart from other things of the same kind.
CONCEPT
Aristotle on What There Is
10
Which of the following is the most important tenet of Stoicism?
·
To resist playing a role
·
To understand that reality is either good or bad
·
To let go of what we cannot control
·
To feed our desires
RATIONALE
Stoicism is a philosophy that encourages us to focus only on what we can control (e.g., our desires, emotions, judgments, and reactions). We should not be upset by things that are beyond our control. Stoicism encourages us to reduce desire and to view reality as neither good nor bad.
CONCEPT
Stoicism: The Ethics of Dispassion
11
Recall the similarities and differences between Plato and Aristotle's philosophical approaches.
Select the statement that would most likely have been made by Plato, rather than by Aristotle.
·
“I teach by example and I live by what I teach, no matter the consequences.”
·
“My ideas have served as a starting point for both philosophy and the physical sciences.”
·
“In order to find truth, we must first identify what makes a thing what it is, its essence.
·
“My approach is scientific and empirical; we learn about truth from observation and discovery.”
RATIONALE
Plato proposed the existence of essences in his doctrine of the Forms. As a result, it is more likely that he would have made this statement. As a rationalist philosopher, Plato believed that knowledge does not rely on human senses alone, and can be accessed through the existence of essences. The statements which involve science and empiricism are reflective of Aristotle's views. The statement about teaching and living by example is reflective of Socrates' philosophy.
CONCEPT
Aristotle: The Dissection of Reality
12
Which of the following statements about the metaphysical tenets of Plato’s Doctrine of the Forms is FALSE?
·
The Forms exist in an intellectual realm that is fixed and never-ending.
·
There is a cause and effect relationship between Forms and their earthly counterparts.
·
Perfection in the Forms does not exist in Platonic Heaven.
·
Forms must exist in order for knowledge to be possible.
RATIONALE
All of the statements about aspects of Plato's metaphysics are true, except for the suggestion that perfect Forms do not exist in Platonic Heaven. This statement describes Aristotle's metaphysics, not Plato's. Platonic Heaven is where Plato believed Forms, or perfect metaphysical entities, exist.
CONCEPT
Plato Forms: The Foundations of Being
13
“As a physicist, I see all elements as either connected by love or separated by conflict.”
Which ancient philosopher would most likely have made this statement?
·
Pythagoras
·
Empedocles
·
Anaxagoras
·
Xenophanes
RATIONALE
Empedocles was a Pre-Socratic philosopher and physicist who believed that everything in the cosmos was made up of six metaphysical entities. He believed that, rather than beginning and ending, everything in the universe resulted from the continuous mixing and separation of these entities. Although Empedocles's ideas were informed by the Pythagorean doctrine of reincarnation, Pythagoras is not the correct answer because he was not a physicist.
CONCEPT
Cosmology and the First Philosophers
14
Heraclitus developed __________, which stated that all things change over time.
·
the Philosophical Atom
·
the Paradoxes of Zeno
·
Parmenidean Theory
·
the Doctrine of Flux
RATIONALE
Heraclitus developed the Doctrine of Flux, and defined flux as "continuous change." The doctrine maintains that everything is impermanent and in a constant state of change.
CONCEPT
Heraclitus and the Doctrine of Impermanence
15
In the Apology, Socrates states that a good person does what he knows to be right despite __________.
·
negative personal consequences
·
risking fame and fortune
·
the laws of man
·
the wisdom of the gods
RATIONALE
The Apology is Plato's transcription of the defense Socrates presented at his trial on charges of "denying the gods" and "corrupting the youth of Athens." In it, Socrates asserts that he does not fear death, because he has lived as he believed was right. To Socrates, it is more important to live rightly than to avoid death and other negative personal consequences.
CONCEPT
The Apology: A Defense of Philosophy
16
Nancy is a cashier at a grocery store. A boy from her school, who she knows is underage, attempts to buy beer. Nancy hesitates before completing the transaction.
According to Aristotle’s ethics, which question should Nancy ask herself?
·
Why is this action right, and why is it wrong?
·
How can I reach a compromise?
·
What kind of person should I be?
·
Are there possible consequences of this action that could harm me?
RATIONALE
Aristotelian ethics are primarily concerned with character. As a result, Nancy should ask herself “What kind of person should I be?” rather than “How should I act?”
According to Aristotelian ethics, actions are evaluated based on how they inform your character. Therefore, Nancy must determine what kind of person she wants to be and what virtues she wants to cultivate, and then act accordingly.
CONCEPT
Applying Aristotle's Ethics
17
Which branch of philosophy examines the basis and nature of knowledge?
·
Ethics
·
Epistemology
·
Cosmology
·
Metaphysics
RATIONALE
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy in which concepts of knowledge are analyzed and defended. Metaphysics is concerned with discovering and describing the ultimate nature of reality. Cosmology is the study of the universe in its totality, and ethics considers concepts of value (e.g., right and wrong).
CONCEPT
What is Philosophy?
18
According to Plato’s doctrine of the Forms, is Leonardo da Vinci's painting, the Mona Lisa, beauty?
·
No, because not everyone agrees that it represents that which is beautiful.
·
No, because it only participates in the Form of Beauty.
·
Yes, if each individual applies his or her concept of beauty to the painting.
·
Yes, if beauty represents all that is good in Platonic Heaven.
RATIONALE
Plato's doctrine of the Forms states that the essences of all things, including beauty, exist in Platonic Heaven. Worldly objects are what they are because they participate in their corresponding Form. The Mona Lisa is a beautiful painting because it participates, or imitates, the Form of Beauty. It is not, in itself, beauty.
CONCEPT
Applying Plato's Metaphysics
19
In the passage below, Socrates imagines a dialogue between himself and Athens, personified as the laws:
“Then the laws will say: ‘Consider, Socrates, if we are speaking truly that in your present attempt you are going to do us an injury. For, having brought you into the world, and nurtured and educated you, and given you and every other citizen a share in every good which we had to give, we further proclaim to any Athenian by the liberty which we allow him, that if he does not like us when he has become of age and has seen the ways of the city, and made our acquaintance, he may go where he pleases and take his goods with him. None of us laws will forbid him or interfere with him. Anyone who does not like us and the city, and who wants to emigrate to a colony or to any other city, may go where he likes, retaining his property. But he who has experience of the manner in which we order justice and administer the state, and still remains, has entered into an implied contract that he will do as we command him.’”
Reconstruct the argument from this text and choose the sentence that accurately states the main premise of Socrates’ argument.
·
By neither leaving Athens nor attempting to change its laws, Socrates consented to the terms of a Social Contract with Athens.
·
An unjust act is obvious, just as a just act is obvious, but unless we know the true essence of justice, we cannot judge others.
·
Socrates believes that taking advantage of opportunities to save his life would be giving in to his enemies, and approving his own destruction.
·
Our senses do not provide us with truth, so the soul must attain truth without the distraction and deception caused by bodily experiences.
RATIONALE
In this selection from the Crito, "the laws" remind Socrates that Athens has provided him many benefits, including sustenance, education, and liberty, including the freedom to leave Athens with all of his worldly property if chose to do so. However, anyone (including Socrates) who "still remains . . . has entered into an implied contract . . .” to obey the laws and judgements of the state. The main premise of Socrates' argument, therefore, is that since he neither left Athens nor attempted to change its laws, he has consented to the terms of a Social Contract with the state.
CONCEPT
The Apology — Socrates' Arguments
20
When Alan joins the military, he discovers that the philosophy of Stoicism is popular with his fellow soldiers.
All of the following describe reasons why Stoicism is a good fit for the military, EXCEPT:
·
It is important for soldiers to do their jobs with skill and dispassion.
·
Stoicism emphasizes personal control of emotions and actions.
·
Soldiers must remain impassive to what is outside their control.
·
Courage in battle is measured by the efficiency of one's actions.
RATIONALE
All of these statements indicate why Stoicism is a good fit for the military except for the suggestion that it improves courage in battle because it makes soldiers more efficient. Stoicism can make soldiers less fearful of outcomes beyond their control, thus enhancing their courage. However, the principles of Stoicism do not create a relationship between courage and efficiency.
CONCEPT
Stoicism: The Ethics of Dispassion
21
According to Aristotle’s ethics, virtues should be pursued by __________.
·
finding a rational mean between two extremes
·
defining what is true
·
determining the purest form of action
·
thinking abstractly
RATIONALE
Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean states that virtue must be cultivated as a rational mean between extremes. For example, the virtue of courage is found between the vices of cowardice and foolhardiness.
CONCEPT
Aristotle's Highest Good
22
Choose the statement that describes a central theme of Parmenidean metaphysics.
·
The world is composed of linked opposites.
·
The universe consists of one, unchanging entity.
·
The opinions of mortals are universally reliable.
·
Mortal and divine knowledge can be joined.
RATIONALE
Parmenidean metaphysics includes the concept of "substance monism" — the belief that all reality is one object. This object is called the “what-is.” The "what-is" is eternal and unchanging. None of the other statements represent Parmenidean metaphysics.
CONCEPT
Parmenides and the Doctrine of Permanence
23
In Plato's view, justified true beliefs must be related to his metaphysical notion of __________, which he called the Forms.
·
truth
·
knowledge
·
wisdom
·
essence
RATIONALE
Plato's Forms are also referred to as "essences." An essence is that which makes an object what it truly is. Essences provide the basis for knowledge (i.e., justified true belief). For example, we can know what "goodness" truly is because a real thing that is the essence of goodness, called the Form of Goodness, exists.
CONCEPT
Plato's Forms: The Objects of Knowledge
24
All teachers are robots.
Cynthia is a teacher.
Therefore, Cynthia is a robot.
Evaluate the argument and select the option that describes it.
·
Inductive, weak, uncogent
·
Deductive, invalid, sound
·
Deductive, valid, unsound
·
Inductive, strong, cogent
RATIONALE
Because the inferential claim in this example is one of logical certainty, and is about definition and form rather than cause and effect, this is a deductive argument. Since a case in which the premises are true and the conclusion is false cannot exist, this argument is valid. However, this argument is unsound because the first premise is false: Not all teachers are robots.
CONCEPT
Evaluating an Argument in Action
25
Select the statement upon which Plato and Aristotle would disagree.
·
Essences exist and are genuine entities.
·
Truth is important above all else.
·
Essences exist independently of the world.
·
Reasoning and logic are key to finding truth.
RATIONALE
1
According to Plato's doctrine of Forms, what makes a rose a rose is that it __________.
·
imitates the genuine Form of Rose
·
serves the purpose of a rose
·
changes the Form of Rose
·
reveals what is true about all roses
RATIONALE
According to Plato, Forms are the exemplars of their worldy correlates. Worldly objects imitate the more genuine, more real Forms of those objects. As a result of this process, wordly objects are grounded in truth.
CONCEPT
Applying Plato's Metaphysics
2
Select the statement that would most likely have been made by Aristotle.
·
“The world is unchanging and eternal, which conflicts with the illusion that life is neither.”
·
“We must begin with the world we encounter every day, rather than with the abstraction of metaphysics.”
·
“What is true is always true, independent of wisdom, language, or knowledge.”
·
“New things do not come into existence; rather, things change their organization.”
RATIONALE
The statement that "We must begin with the world we encounter every day" reflects Aristotle's philosophical approach. To Aristotle, all knowledge is grounded in human experience, and flows from empirical evidence. The statements which involve change are reflective of Parmenides and the Atomists. The statement about truth existing independent of wisdom, language, or knowledge is reflective of Plato's philosophy.
CONCEPT
Aristotle: The Dissection of Reality
3
Select the statement upon which Plato and Aristotle would disagree.
·
Essences exist independently of the world.
·
Truth is important above all else.
·
Essences exist and are genuine entities.
·
Reasoning and logic are key to finding truth.
RATIONALE
Plato and Aristotle agree on all of these points except for the statement that essences exist independently of the world. This was Plato's belief, but Aristotle believed that essences exist only within worldly objects, and nowhere else.
CONCEPT
Plato vs. Aristotle: The Mathematician or the Biologist
4
Being a good parent is a __________ condition for having a child.
Apply conceptual analysis to this statement and choose the answer that correctly describes the relationship.
·
necessary, not sufficient
·
sufficient, not necessary
·
both necessary and sufficient
·
neither necessary nor sufficient
RATIONALE
Being a good parent is not a necessary condition, or logical requirement, for having a child because there are people who have children who aren't good parents. In order to be a parent, a person must have a child. That makes being a good parent a sufficient, but not a necessary condition for having a child.
CONCEPT
Plato: An academic approach to concepts
5
Socrates differed from the pre-Socratics in that his interests were primarily in __________.
·
ethics and epistemology
·
cosmology and natural philosophy
·
how the universe works
·
the true nature of reality
RATIONALE
The focus of Socrates' philosophy was different from that of the Pre-Socratic philosophers. He investigated questions involving ethics and epistemology. The Pre-Socratic philosophers had focused on natural philosophy and cosmology.
CONCEPT
Socrates: The Father of Western Philosophy
6
In the passage below, Socrates imagines a dialogue between himself and Athens, personified as the laws:
“Then the laws will say: ‘Consider, Socrates, if we are speaking truly that in your present attempt you are going to do us an injury. For, having brought you into the world, and nurtured and educated you, and given you and every other citizen a share in every good which we had to give, we further proclaim to any Athenian by the liberty which we allow him, that if he does not like us when he has become of age and has seen the ways of the city, and made our acquaintance, he may go where he pleases and take his goods with him. None of us laws will forbid him or interfere with him. Anyone who does not like us and the city, and who wants to emigrate to a colony or to any other city, may go where he likes, retaining his property. But he who has experience of the manner in which we order justice and administer the state, and still remains, has entered into an implied contract that he will do as we command him.’”
Reconstruct the argument from this text and choose the sentence that accurately states the main premise of Socrates’ argument.
·
Our senses do not provide us with truth, so the soul must attain truth without the distraction and deception caused by bodily experiences.
·
Socrates believes that taking advantage of opportunities to save his life would be giving in to his enemies, and approving his own destruction.
·
An unjust act is obvious, just as a just act is obvious, but unless we know the true essence of justice, we cannot judge others.
·
By neither leaving Athens nor attempting to change its laws, Socrates consented to the terms of a Social Contract with Athens.
RATIONALE
In this selection from the Crito, "the laws" remind Socrates that Athens has provided him many benefits, including sustenance, education, and liberty, including the freedom to leave Athens with all of his worldly property if chose to do so. However, anyone (including Socrates) who "still remains . . . has entered into an implied contract . . .” to obey the laws and judgements of the state. The main premise of Socrates' argument, therefore, is that since he neither left Athens nor attempted to change its laws, he has consented to the terms of a Social Contract with the state.
CONCEPT
The Apology — Socrates' Arguments
7
Which of the following statements about the metaphysical tenets of Plato’s Doctrine of the Forms is FALSE?
·
There is a cause and effect relationship between Forms and their earthly counterparts.
·
Perfection in the Forms does not exist in Platonic Heaven.
·
The Forms exist in an intellectual realm that is fixed and never-ending.
·
Forms must exist in order for knowledge to be possible.
RATIONALE
All of the statements about aspects of Plato's metaphysics are true, except for the suggestion that perfect Forms do not exist in Platonic Heaven. This statement describes Aristotle's metaphysics, not Plato's. Platonic Heaven is where Plato believed Forms, or perfect metaphysical entities, exist.
CONCEPT
Plato Forms: The Foundations of Being
8
Which of the following is NOT an example of Aristotle’s notion of hylomorphism?
·
The soul and a human being
·
A statue and a human being
·
An unborn child and a human being
·
Bodily organs and a human being
RATIONALE
Aristotle's notion of hylomorphism states that being is a relationship, a union of form and matter. All of the examples that signify relationships are cases of hylomorphism: bodily organs (matter) and human beings (form); an unborn child (matter) and a human being (form); human beings (matter) and the soul (form). There is no ontological relationship between a statue and a human being, so this is not an example of hylomorphism.
CONCEPT
Aristotle on What There Is
9
When Alan joins the military, he discovers that the philosophy of Stoicism is popular with his fellow soldiers.
All of the following describe reasons why Stoicism is a good fit for the military, EXCEPT:
·
It is important for soldiers to do their jobs with skill and dispassion.
·
Stoicism emphasizes personal control of emotions and actions.
·
Courage in battle is measured by the efficiency of one's actions.
·
Soldiers must remain impassive to what is outside their control.
RATIONALE
All of these statements indicate why Stoicism is a good fit for the military except for the suggestion that it improves courage in battle because it makes soldiers more efficient. Stoicism can make soldiers less fearful of outcomes beyond their control, thus enhancing their courage. However, the principles of Stoicism do not create a relationship between courage and efficiency.
CONCEPT
Stoicism: The Ethics of Dispassion
10
Kenny is a chef who is trying to determine how carefully he should focus on details while doing his job. He wants to avoid being too detail-oriented because it would be inefficient for him to do so. However, if he doesn't pay enough attention to details, the quality of the food he prepares will be inconsistent.
According to Aristotle’s ethics, this is an example of the __________.
·
Ethics of Virtue
·
Doctrine of the Forms
·
Doctrine of the Mean
·
Function Argument
RATIONALE
Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean states that virtue must be cultivated as a rational mean between extremes. Kenny's efforts to find the correct level of detail-focus to succeed in his job illustrates this doctrine.
CONCEPT
Aristotle's Highest Good
11
All of the following statements are central themes of Parmenidean metaphysics, EXCEPT:
·
Complex phenomena can be explained as having been caused by the gods.
·
Reasonable assumptions can lead to paradoxes.
·
All change is illusory.
·
This worldview transcends opinion to examine the world as it is.
RATIONALE
Parmenides was a Pre-Socratic philosopher. He sought answers to questions about the universe that did not involve the gods or other supernatural forces. His philosophical explanations (like those of other Pre-Socratics) was naturalistic. All of the other statements accurately represent Parmenidean metaphysics.
CONCEPT
Parmenides and the Doctrine of Permanence
12
The philosophical value of the Socratic Method is described in all of the following statements, EXCEPT:
·
Students learn from interacting with each other, and the teacher facilitates this process.
·
Students answer questions to which they know the answers, and are led by the teacher to new truths.
·
The emphasis is on finding truth, not on “winning” an argument.
·
The Socratic Method guides students to understanding rather than requiring them to memorize facts.
RATIONALE
The Socratic Method does not facilitate learning through students' interaction with one another. Rather, it is an exchange between student and teacher, in which the teacher uses the student's knowledge to guide him or her to truth.
CONCEPT
The Socratic Approach
13
Which branch of philosophy examines the basis and nature of knowledge?
·
Cosmology
·
Ethics
·
Epistemology
·
Metaphysics
RATIONALE
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy in which concepts of knowledge are analyzed and defended. Metaphysics is concerned with discovering and describing the ultimate nature of reality. Cosmology is the study of the universe in its totality, and ethics considers concepts of value (e.g., right and wrong).
CONCEPT
What is Philosophy?
14
In the Apology, what does Socrates do when he is found guilty and sentenced to death?
·
He agrees that his actions were immoral and that the decision of the judges is just.
·
He asks Plato to record his life.
·
He tries to convince the jury to accept his defense.
·
He is willing to face death rather than violate the principles of his moral philosophy.
RATIONALE
The Apology is Plato's transcription of the defense Socrates presented at his trial on charges of "denying the gods" and "corrupting the youth of Athens." When found guilty and sentenced to death, Socrates accepts his sentence. He argues that it is more important to live rightly, which he believes he has done, than to avoid death by compromising one's moral philosophy.
CONCEPT
The Apology: A Defense of Philosophy
15
Heraclitus' Logos is part of his __________.
·
mathematics
·
metaphysics
·
science
·
ethics
RATIONALE
Heraclitus asserted that true reality is the Logos, a Greek word that can be translated as “account.” Since metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned with discovering and describing the ultimate nature of reality, the Logos is part of Heraclitus' metaphysics.
CONCEPT
Heraclitus and the Doctrine of Impermanence
16
Which of the following statements about Aristotle's metaphysics is FALSE?
·
The first philosophy for Aristotle was ontology, which examines the nature of being.
·
Aristotle's ultimate conclusion was that the nature of reality was change.
·
Aristotle defined a particular as “a this” to distinguish it from a universal.
·
For Aristotle, existence requires matter and form— not one or the other, but both.
RATIONALE
Aristotle would agree with all of these statements except the suggestion that the nature of reality is change. To Aristotle, reality is what we can observe. It can be described as a substance and a way of being, or matter and form.
CONCEPT
Aristotle on What There Is
17
When Crito tries to convince Socrates that he must not betray his own life, how does Socrates respond?
·
He says that he is not afraid of dying and knows that his followers will restore his good name.
·
He says that all life has value, but society determines the fate of man.
·
He says that life would not be worth living if the principle of justice was violated.
·
He says that what is right is often misunderstood by mortals and must be left to the gods.
RATIONALE
In the Crito, Socrates' friend (Crito) tried to convince him to escape and avoid execution. Socrates refused to do so, and explained why escape would be wrong. Socrates asserted that not all life has intrinsic value; only the good life does. Since he believed that he would violate the principle of justice (established by the Social Contract) by avoiding death, Socrates refused to avoid it.
CONCEPT
The Crito: The Duties of the Social Contract
18
A Stoic avoids looking for good in external things and recognizes that value __________.
·
lies in our judgment of the world
·
is determined by intrinsic personality traits
·
has little to do with ethics
·
can be found in every living entity
RATIONALE
Stoicism is a philosophical approach that encourages people to focus only on what they can control (e.g., their desires, emotions, reactions, and judgments of the world). They should not be concerned by things that are beyond their control. Stoicism directs people to focus on their internal values rather than external rewards.
CONCEPT
Stoicism: The Ethics of Dispassion
19
All teachers are robots.
Cynthia is a teacher.
Therefore, Cynthia is a robot.
Evaluate the argument and select the option that describes it.
·
Deductive, invalid, sound
·
Deductive, valid, unsound
·
Inductive, weak, uncogent
·
Inductive, strong, cogent
RATIONALE
Because the inferential claim in this example is one of logical certainty, and is about definition and form rather than cause and effect, this is a deductive argument. Since a case in which the premises are true and the conclusion is false cannot exist, this argument is valid. However, this argument is unsound because the first premise is false: Not all teachers are robots.
CONCEPT
Evaluating an Argument in Action
20
“As a physicist, I see all elements as either connected by love or separated by conflict.”
Which ancient philosopher would most likely have made this statement?
·
Pythagoras
·
Anaxagoras
·
Xenophanes
·
Empedocles
RATIONALE
Empedocles was a Pre-Socratic philosopher and physicist who believed that everything in the cosmos was made up of six metaphysical entities. He believed that, rather than beginning and ending, everything in the universe resulted from the continuous mixing and separation of these entities. Although Empedocles's ideas were informed by the Pythagorean doctrine of reincarnation, Pythagoras is not the correct answer because he was not a physicist.
CONCEPT
Cosmology and the First Philosophers
21
According to Socrates in the Phaedo, why might death be an advantage to the philosopher?
·
Death is the ultimate distinction between knowledge and opinion.
·
Only humans can seek knowledge and truth, but their ability to do so ends with death.
·
In life, the Social Contract requires people to behave according to the needs and wants of others.
·
Eyes, ears, and other bodily organs can distract one from the attainment of truth and knowledge.
RATIONALE
The Phaedo is a conversation between Socrates and his students about death. It takes place just before his execution. During this conversation, Socrates explains why philosophers should not fear death, which he defines as the end of the life of the body, but not of the soul. Socrates views the body as an impediment to the acquisition of wisdom and truth. Therefore, a philosopher may be able to find answers after death that cannot be found during life.
CONCEPT
The Phaedo: The Death of Socrates
22
According to Aristotle’s ethics, virtues should be pursued by __________.
·
thinking abstractly
·
determining the purest form of action
·
finding a rational mean between two extremes
·
defining what is true
RATIONALE
Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean states that virtue must be cultivated as a rational mean between extremes. For example, the virtue of courage is found between the vices of cowardice and foolhardiness.
CONCEPT
Aristotle's Highest Good
23
Which of the following statements about the atomistic worldview is FALSE?
·
All reality is composed of atoms in a void.
·
A philosophical atom is the same as a chemical atom.
·
Everything that exists is either an atom or a collection of atoms.
·
Atoms come in different shapes and sizes, and can exist in a number of ways.
RATIONALE
The atomists believed that everything that exists is either an atom, or a collection of atoms. They also believed that all matter and phenomena are the result of different configurations of atoms of different shapes and sizes. However, a philosophical atom is not the same as a chemical atom. To the atomists, a philosophical atom was an indivisible entity. Chemical atoms, as science has demonstrated, can be divided into smaller parts.
CONCEPT
The Atomistic Worldview
24
Fred believes that the death penalty is ethically wrong. After watching a documentary about capital punishment, he discussed his belief with his wife.
Choose the statement from Fred that is NOT consistent with his belief.
·
“No matter the offense, the state should never use death as punishment.”
·
“Humans must not play God by deciding when someone’s life should end.”
·
“The threat of the death penalty does not deter criminals from committing crimes.”
·
“If someone harmed a member of our family, I believe he would deserve death.”
RATIONALE
To live philosophically, a person must examine his or her beliefs to ground them in knowledge, and then act according to those beliefs. By making an exception to his position on the death penalty for people who harmed a member of his family, Fred displays an inconsistent philosophical worldview.
CONCEPT
Philosophical Analysis as a Way of Life
25
In Plato's view, justified true beliefs must be related to his metaphysical notion of __________, which he called the Forms.
·
truth
·
essence
·
knowledge
·
wisdom
RATIONALE
1
Fred believes that the death penalty is ethically wrong. After watching a documentary about capital punishment, he discussed his belief with his wife.
Choose the statement from Fred that is NOT consistent with his belief.
·
“If someone harmed a member of our family, I believe he would deserve death.”
·
“Humans must not play God by deciding when someone’s life should end.”
·
“No matter the offense, the state should never use death as punishment.”
·
“The threat of the death penalty does not deter criminals from committing crimes.”
RATIONALE
To live philosophically, a person must examine his or her beliefs to ground them in knowledge, and then act according to those beliefs. By making an exception to his position on the death penalty for people who harmed a member of his family, Fred displays an inconsistent philosophical worldview.
CONCEPT
Philosophical Analysis as a Way of Life
2
In the Phaedo, Socrates makes all of the following claims, EXCEPT:
·
Sensory distractions hinder the soul's pursuit of truth and knowledge.
·
Valuing what is right more than life is illogical and meaningless.
·
Without a body to impede his or her progress, the philosopher may see things as they truly are.
·
The philosopher is concerned with the soul and not with the body.
RATIONALE
The Phaedo is a conversation between Socrates and his students about death. It takes place just before his execution. During this conversation, Socrates demonstrates why philosophers should not fear death, which he defines as the end of the life of the body, but not of the soul. He believes that there is no value in preserving the life of the body if preservation comes at the expense of the soul's pursuit of wisdom (i.e., what is right).
CONCEPT
The Phaedo: The Death of Socrates
3
Choose the statement that both Plato and Aristotle would agree is true.
·
“Ideals are similar to mathematical objects or entities.”
·
“The physical sciences are a source of eternal knowledge."
·
“A human being is 'human' because he or she reflects the Form of a Human.”
·
“The ideals of Beauty and Truth are not of this world.”
RATIONALE
Plato and Aristotle disagreed on all of these points except for the position that a human being is "human" because he or she reflects the Form of a Human. Although they also disagreed on where essences were located, Plato and Aristotle were both metaphysicians who believed that essences, or Forms, were real entities that existed and provided the basis for truth and knowledge.
CONCEPT
Plato vs. Aristotle: The Mathematician or the Biologist
4
Which of the following statements about the Crito is FALSE?
·
Athens performed its end of the Social Contract; Socrates was required to do the same.
·
Following the advice of experts is more ethical than appealing the majority.
·
Socrates argued that civil disobedience was an obligation for intellectuals and philosophers.
·
The Social Contract made it unethical for Socrates to escape his punishment.
RATIONALE
In the Crito, Socrates argues against the concept of civil disobedience. In an imagined dialogue between him and Athens, Socrates says "But he who has experience of the manner in which we order justice and administer the state, and still remains, has entered into an implied contract that he will do as we command him." In other words, a person who has benefited from the protection and privileges provided by a state, and who has not sought to change its laws or leave its jurisdiction, must accept its judgement. This is an early expression of the concept of the Social Contract.
CONCEPT
The Crito: The Duties of the Social Contract
5
Choose the example that best demonstrates a central tenet of Stoicism.
·
Carlene is devastated when her outdoor party is interrupted by a thunderstorm.
·
Stephanie is a good nurse because she is skillful and always remains composed.
·
Bob is such a rabid Cubs fan that it isn’t fun to watch a baseball game with him.
·
Mr. Donovan insists that he begin each morning with pastry and a cup of sweet tea.
RATIONALE
Stoicism is a philosophy that encourages people to focus only on what they can control (e.g., their desires, emotions, and reactions). Because Stoicism focuses on eliminating desires, and emphasizes control of emotions, it leads people to perform their assigned jobs (or roles) skillfully and dispassionately.
CONCEPT
Stoicism: The Ethics of Dispassion
6
The philosophical value of the Socratic Method is described in all of the following statements, EXCEPT:
·
The Socratic Method guides students to understanding rather than requiring them to memorize facts.
·
Students answer questions to which they know the answers, and are led by the teacher to new truths.
·
The emphasis is on finding truth, not on “winning” an argument.
·
Students learn from interacting with each other, and the teacher facilitates this process.
RATIONALE
The Socratic Method does not facilitate learning through students' interaction with one another. Rather, it is an exchange between student and teacher, in which the teacher uses the student's knowledge to guide him or her to truth.
CONCEPT
The Socratic Approach
7
Choose the question that distinguishes the focus of Socrates’ philosophical inquiry from that of the philosophers who preceded him.
·
What is the role of the gods?
·
What is real?
·
What is the nature of the universe?
·
What is knowledge?
RATIONALE
Socrates redirected philosophical inquiry from the topics that interested the Pre-Socratic philosophers (e.g., natural philosophy and cosmology) to ethics and epistemology. He sought to answer epistemological questions including "What is knowledge?" and "How do I know what I know?"
CONCEPT
Socrates: The Father of Western Philosophy
8
Choose the statement that describes a central theme of Parmenidean metaphysics.
·
Mortal and divine knowledge can be joined.
·
The world is composed of linked opposites.
·
The universe consists of one, unchanging entity.
·
The opinions of mortals are universally reliable.
RATIONALE
Parmenidean metaphysics includes the concept of "substance monism" — the belief that all reality is one object. This object is called the “what-is.” The "what-is" is eternal and unchanging. None of the other statements represent Parmenidean metaphysics.
CONCEPT
Parmenides and the Doctrine of Permanence
9
Heraclitus developed __________, which maintained that the world is composed of objects and their counterparts, all of which are connected to one another.
·
Heraclitean paradoxes
·
Heraclitean metaphysics
·
the Unity of Opposites
·
the Doctrine of Flux
RATIONALE
Heraclitus developed the principle called the Unity of Opposites. It maintains that the world is composed of opposites, and that opposites are linked in a system of connections. This principle is one part of Heraclitean metaphysics.
CONCEPT
Heraclitus and the Doctrine of Impermanence
10
Read the following statement by Socrates:
“And he attains to the purest knowledge of them who goes to each with the mind alone, not introducing or intruding in the act of thought sight or any other sense together with reason, but with the very light of the mind in her own clearness searches into the very truth of each; he who has got rid, as far as he can, of eyes and ears and, so to speak, of the whole body, these being in his opinion distracting elements which when they infect the soul hinder her from acquiring truth and knowledge . . .”
Outline Socrates' argument in this text and choose the sentence that accurately reflects it.
·
It is the mind, not the senses, that can know the essence of a thing.
·
Life has no intrinsic value; only a good life, well-lived, has value for the gods.
·
The physical body and the soul are both necessary in order to find truth.
·
Death prevents the philosopher from finding the answers he most wants to know.
RATIONALE
In this selection from the Phaedo, Socrates argues that the philosopher is not concerned with the world of the senses, but with the soul. When Socrates says "And he attains to the purest knowledge of them who goes to each with the mind alone," he asserts that pure knowledge is readily acquired by the mind when it is separated from the body. The senses (e.g., eyes and ears) are a distraction that "hinder her from acquiring truth and knowledge . . .” Therefore, death (which Socrates views as the end of the life of the body, not of the soul) enables the philosopher to find the answers he or she seeks.
CONCEPT
The Apology — Socrates' Arguments
11
All of the following are central tenets of Aristotle’s ethics, EXCEPT:
·
Knowing the essence of a thing can justify a belief.
·
An action is evaluated based on how it informs character.
·
Any virtue can become a vice.
·
Something is good when it excels at its function.
RATIONALE
Aristotelian ethics are concerned with topics which include determining what makes actions good or bad, and how to define virtue. According to Aristotelian ethics, it is important to know the essence of a thing, not because it can justify a belief, but because it determines function which, in turn, determines virtue or excellence.
CONCEPT
Aristotle's Highest Good
12
“It is my belief that everything in the cosmos is made of water.”
Which ancient philosopher would most likely have made this statement?
·
Pythagoras
·
Empedocles
·
Protagoras
·
Thales
RATIONALE
Thales was the Pre-Socratic philosopher who believed that everything in the cosmos was made of water. Thales and his pupils, Anaximander and Anaximenes, sought to discover the nature of the cosmos.
CONCEPT
Cosmology and the First Philosophers
13
Recall the similarities and differences between Plato and Aristotle's philosophical approaches.
Select the statement that would most likely have been made by Plato, rather than by Aristotle.
·
“My approach is scientific and empirical; we learn about truth from observation and discovery.”
·
“I teach by example and I live by what I teach, no matter the consequences.”
·
“My ideas have served as a starting point for both philosophy and the physical sciences.”
·
“In order to find truth, we must first identify what makes a thing what it is, its essence.
RATIONALE
Plato proposed the existence of essences in his doctrine of the Forms. As a result, it is more likely that he would have made this statement. As a rationalist philosopher, Plato believed that knowledge does not rely on human senses alone, and can be accessed through the existence of essences. The statements which involve science and empiricism are reflective of Aristotle's views. The statement about teaching and living by example is reflective of Socrates' philosophy.
CONCEPT
Aristotle: The Dissection of Reality
14
What kind of a thing is an orchid? It is a type of flower. What distinguishes an orchid from other flowers? The female and male parts of an orchid are fused together.
According to Aristotle, answering both of these questions reveals the __________ of an orchid.
·
ontology
·
genus
·
essence
·
organization
RATIONALE
According to Aristotle, we can discover and describe essences by identifying a genus and a differentia. The genus (in this example, a flower) tells us what kind of thing an orchid is. The differentia tells us what sets an orchid apart from other things of the same kind.
CONCEPT
Aristotle on What There Is
15
A Stoic avoids looking for good in external things and recognizes that value __________.
·
has little to do with ethics
·
lies in our judgment of the world
·
can be found in every living entity
·
is determined by intrinsic personality traits
RATIONALE
Stoicism is a philosophical approach that encourages people to focus only on what they can control (e.g., their desires, emotions, reactions, and judgments of the world). They should not be concerned by things that are beyond their control. Stoicism directs people to focus on their internal values rather than external rewards.
CONCEPT
Stoicism: The Ethics of Dispassion
16
All teachers are robots.
Cynthia is a teacher.
Therefore, Cynthia is a robot.
Evaluate the argument and select the option that describes it.
·
Inductive, weak, uncogent
·
Deductive, valid, unsound
·
Inductive, strong, cogent
·
Deductive, invalid, sound
RATIONALE
Because the inferential claim in this example is one of logical certainty, and is about definition and form rather than cause and effect, this is a deductive argument. Since a case in which the premises are true and the conclusion is false cannot exist, this argument is valid. However, this argument is unsound because the first premise is false: Not all teachers are robots.
CONCEPT
Evaluating an Argument in Action
17
According to Plato’s doctrine of the Forms, is Leonardo da Vinci's painting, the Mona Lisa, beauty?
·
No, because it only participates in the Form of Beauty.
·
Yes, if each individual applies his or her concept of beauty to the painting.
·
Yes, if beauty represents all that is good in Platonic Heaven.
·
No, because not everyone agrees that it represents that which is beautiful.
RATIONALE
Plato's doctrine of the Forms states that the essences of all things, including beauty, exist in Platonic Heaven. Worldly objects are what they are because they participate in their corresponding Form. The Mona Lisa is a beautiful painting because it participates, or imitates, the Form of Beauty. It is not, in itself, beauty.
CONCEPT
Applying Plato's Metaphysics
18
Which of the following statements about the metaphysical tenets of Plato’s Doctrine of the Forms is FALSE?
·
Plato’s Doctrine of the Forms grounds knowledge and being.
·
The intellectual realm in which the Forms exist is unchanging and eternal.
·
There is no knowledge because everything is in a state of transition and nothing is true.
·
Worldly objects imitate the more real, genuine Forms of objects.
RATIONALE
The statement that "There is no knowledge because everything is in a state of transition and nothing is true" is the opposite of Plato's metaphysical beliefs. His Doctrine of the Forms argues that all worldly objects are related to their essences (i.e., Forms), which are real, unchanging, perfect entities that exist in an intellectual realm called Platonic Heaven. The Forms provide the basis for all knowledge.
CONCEPT
Plato Forms: The Foundations of Being
19
Kenny is a chef who is trying to determine how carefully he should focus on details while doing his job. He wants to avoid being too detail-oriented because it would be inefficient for him to do so. However, if he doesn't pay enough attention to details, the quality of the food he prepares will be inconsistent.
According to Aristotle’s ethics, this is an example of the __________.
·
Doctrine of the Forms
·
Ethics of Virtue
·
Doctrine of the Mean
·
Function Argument
RATIONALE
Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean states that virtue must be cultivated as a rational mean between extremes. Kenny's efforts to find the correct level of detail-focus to succeed in his job illustrates this doctrine.
CONCEPT
Aristotle's Highest Good
20
Which of the following statements about the atomistic worldview is FALSE?
·
Philosophical atoms of different shapes and consistencies are the fundamental components of reality.
·
The worldview of philosophical atomists, with some revisions, has been adopted by contemporary science.
·
The philosophical worldview of the early Greek atomists had great influence on philosophical, scientific, and religious thinking, but only for a brief period of time.
·
Everything in the universe exists as a single atom, or a collection of atoms.
RATIONALE
The philosophical worldview of the early Greek atomists has continued to have an impact throughout history. Atomism has been adopted and modified by contemporary science, and has had a lasting influence on religion and theology.
CONCEPT
The Atomistic Worldview
21
Which of the following statements about Aristotle’s metaphysics is FALSE?
·
Examining the nature of being, and knowing what kinds of things exist, is a sensible beginning point for philosophical inquiry.
·
Humans have the natural capacity to know many things without divine revelation or empirical evidence.
·
In order for a statement to be true, one must state that an object exists, what the object is, and the state in which it exists.
·
The distinction between form and matter is purely conceptual— one does not, and cannot, exist without the other.
RATIONALE
Aristotle would agree with all of these statements except the suggestion that we can have knowledge without empirical evidence. To Aristotle, all knowledge is grounded in human experience and flows from empirical evidence.
CONCEPT
Aristotle on What There Is
22
Lisa is considering whether it is morally permissible to eat meat.
Which branch of philosophy can help her answer this question?
·
Ethics
·
Cosmology
·
Epistemology
·
Metaphysics
RATIONALE
Ethics is the branch of philosophy in which concepts of value (e.g., right and wrong are considered). In epistemology, concepts of knowledge are analyzed and defended. Metaphysics is concerned with discovering and describing the ultimate nature of reality, and cosmology is the study of the universe in its totality.
CONCEPT
What is Philosophy?
23
In the Apology, what does Socrates do when he is found guilty and sentenced to death?
·
He agrees that his actions were immoral and that the decision of the judges is just.
·
He is willing to face death rather than violate the principles of his moral philosophy.
·
He tries to convince the jury to accept his defense.
·
He asks Plato to record his life.
RATIONALE
The Apology is Plato's transcription of the defense Socrates presented at his trial on charges of "denying the gods" and "corrupting the youth of Athens." When found guilty and sentenced to death, Socrates accepts his sentence. He argues that it is more important to live rightly, which he believes he has done, than to avoid death by compromising one's moral philosophy.
CONCEPT
The Apology: A Defense of Philosophy
24
Being a good parent is a __________ condition for having a child.
Apply conceptual analysis to this statement and choose the answer that correctly describes the relationship.
·
sufficient, not necessary
·
both necessary and sufficient
·
neither necessary nor sufficient
·
necessary, not sufficient
RATIONALE
Being a good parent is not a necessary condition, or logical requirement, for having a child because there are people who have children who aren't good parents. In order to be a parent, a person must have a child. That makes being a good parent a sufficient, but not a necessary condition for having a child.
CONCEPT
Plato: An academic approach to concepts
25
In Plato's view, justified true beliefs must be related to his metaphysical notion of __________, which he called the Forms.
·
knowledge
·
truth
·
wisdom
·
essence
RATIONALE
Which branch of philosophy examines the ultimate nature of reality?
·
Epistemology
·
Metaphysics
·
Natural philosophy
·
Cosmology
For Plato, the Forms are the __________ foundation of reality, which means that knowledge of reality is grounded in knowledge of the Forms.
·
ethical
·
natural
·
metaphysical
·
logical
For Plato and his Doctrine of Forms, a person can determine whether an act is courageous if he or she can __________.
·
accurately describe the Form of Courage
·
clearly understand the value of courage
·
imagine an unambiguously courageous action
·
explain what courage means in the real world
The value of the Socratic Method lies in showing students how to __________ on their own, rather than having it dictated to them.
·
gain knowledge
·
evaluate an opinion
·
explain rhetoric
·
create an argument
Roland is a compassionate person. He sometimes gives money that he needs for himself to strangers who beg on the street.
According to Aristotle’s ethics, Roland should do which of the following in order to cultivate the virtue of compassion?
·
Stop giving away his money so that he can focus on taking care of himself.
·
Find middle ground between being too compassionate and not compassionate enough.
·
Find other ways to help people besides giving his money away.
·
Spend time with compassionate people in order to learn the essence of compassion.
While I have lived in my home, my rent has increased every year.
My salary has remained the same for three years.
Next year, I will probably be in a better financial situation.
Evaluate the argument and select the option that describes it.
·
Inductive, strong, cogent
·
Inductive, weak, uncogent
·
Deductive, invalid, unsound
·
Deductive, valid, sound
Read the following statement by Socrates:
“In questions of just and unjust, fair and foul, good and evil, which are the subjects of our present consultation, ought we to follow the opinion of the many and to fear them; or the opinion of the one man who has understanding?”
Extract Socrates' argument from this text and choose the sentence that accurately reflects it.
·
He who has experienced the administration of justice will do as the majority commands him to do.
·
Any man who cares about ethics and wisdom has an obligation to listen to himself over others.
·
Absolute justice can only be achieved when the state agrees with the opinion of the masses.
·
Non-experts have opinions, but the man who is an expert in a field has true knowledge.
Karen believes that she has a responsibility to protect the environment.
Choose the statement that is consistent with Karen's belief.
·
"I only drive my car to work when it is raining or too cold outside.”
·
“I serve meat to my family only on holidays and special occasions.”
·
“I have eliminated all plastic from my day-to-day life.”
·
“I go to the farmer’s market if I have time to do so on the weekends.”
“I view the world as a mathematical entity of perfect harmony.”
Which ancient philosopher would most likely have made this statement?
·
Xenophanes
·
Anaxagoras
·
Pythagoras
·
Protagoras
Water is a __________ condition for staying alive.
Apply conceptual analysis to this statement and choose the answer that correctly describes the relationship.
·
neither necessary nor sufficient
·
sufficient, not necessary
·
both necessary and sufficient
·
necessary, not sufficient