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Summary of Sociology chapter-evernote

The basic foundation of sociology is the belief that a person's attitudes, actions, and opportunities are shaped by all of these aspects of society. The sociological perspective is fourfold: Individuals belong to groups; groups influence our behavior; groups take on characteristics that are independent of their members; and sociologists focus on behavior patterns of groups, such as differences based on sex, race, age, class.

There are five major founders of sociology: August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber. August Comte is thought of as the "Father of Sociology" as he coined the term sociology in 1838.

Emile Durkheim is known as the "father of sociology" and is a founding figure in the field of sociology. He is credited with making sociology a science.

Robert K. Merton is considered one of America's most influential social scientists. He is famous for his theories of deviance as well as for developing the concepts of "self-fulfilling prophecy" and "role model."

Max Weber was a founding figure of the field of sociology and is considered one of the most famous sociologists in history. He is known for his thesis of the "Protestant Ethic" as well as his ideas on bureaucracy.

Karl Marx is known for his socio-political theory of Marxism, which contain theories about society, economics and politics that argue that all society progresses through the dialectic of class struggle.

Charles Horton Cooley is famous for developing the concepts of primary and secondary relationships. He was a founding member and eighth president of the American Sociological Association.

two main approaches to studying sociology: The first is macro-sociology, or the study of society as a whole. This approach emphasizes the analysis of social systems and populations on a large scale and at a high level of theoretical abstraction. The second approach is micro-sociology, or the study of small group behavior. This approach focuses on the nature of everyday human social interactions on a small scale.

The areas where the sociology at: 1. Sociology of Deviance and Crime: who study deviance and crime examine cultural norms, how they change over time, how they are enforced, and what happens to individuals and societies when norms are broken.

some of the major sociological explanations for deviant behavior.

Structural Strain Theory: Robert K. Merton developed the structural strain theory as an extension of the functionalist perspective on deviance. This theory traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are caused by the gap between cultural goals and the means people have available to achieve those goals.

Labeling Theory: Labeling theory is one of the most important approaches to understanding deviant and criminal behavior within sociology. Labeling theory begins with the assumption that no act is intrinsically criminal.

Social Control Theory: Social control theory, developed by Travis Hirschi, is a type of functionalist theory that suggests that deviance occurs when a person’s or group’s attachment to social bonds is weakened.

Theory of Differential Association: The theory of differential association is a learning theory that focuses on the processes by which individuals come to commit deviant or criminal acts.

Lombroso’s Theory: Cesare Lombroso who believed that crime was a characteristic of human nature and instead believed that criminality was inherited. From this belief, he developed a theory of deviance in which a person’s bodily constitution indicates whether or not an individual is a "born criminal.

Sheldon’s Theory of Body Types: body is described as flat-chested, fragile, lean, lightly muscled, small shouldered, and thin.

Y Chromosome Theory: The extra Y chromosome theory is the belief that criminals have an extra Y chromosome, giving them an XYY chromosome makeup rather than an XY makeup, that creates a strong compulsion within them to commit crimes. This person is sometimes called the "super male." Also those people pretend to commit crime more than other.

Psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud, all humans have natural drives and urges that are repressed in the unconscious. Additionally, all humans have criminal tendencies.

Cognitive Development Theory: criminal and deviant behavior results from the way in which individuals organize their thoughts around morality and the law.

Learning theory is based on the principles of behavioral psychology, which hypothesizes that a person’s behavior is learned and maintained by its consequences or rewards. Individuals thus learn deviant and criminal behavior by observing other people and witnessing the rewards or consequences that their behavior receives. That individual might be more likely to shoplift, then, if they believe he or she will be rewarded with the same outcome.

2. Sociology of Consumption: The sociology of consumption is a subfield of sociology formally recognized by the American Sociological Association as the Section on Consumers and Consumption. Within this subfield, sociologists see consumption as central to daily life, identity, and social order in contemporary societies in ways that far exceed rational economic principles of supply and demand.

3. Sociology of the Family: Sociology of the family examines the family as an institution and a unit of socialization through various sociological perspectives.

4. Demography: is the statistical study of human populations. It includes the study of the size, structure, and distributions of different populations and changes in them in response to birth, migration, aging, and death. It also includes the analysis of the relationships between economic, social, cultural, and biological process influencing a population.

5. Sociology of Health and Illness: studies the interaction between society and health. In particular, sociologists examine how social life impacts morbidity and mortality rates and how morbidity and mortality rates impact society.

6. Sociology of Religion: Not all religions share the same set of beliefs, but in one form or another, religion is found in all known human societies.

7. Sociology of the Internet: The advent of the Internet brought with it a new concept of sociology and how sociological concepts, research, and knowledge can be applied.

Social Inequality: One area that sociologists are interested in is how the Internet leads to social inequality and social exclusion. Many people access and use the Internet every day, doing things such as paying bills online to doing research or connecting socially with people. For this segment of the population, the Internet is improving and modernizing their lives. But the individuals who do not have access to the Internet or do not know how to use it are being deprived of the benefits, social opportunities, and time saving methods the Internet provides.

Virtual Communities: Websites such as MySpace and Facebook, as well as online chat rooms and dating websites, allow you to categorize yourself into dozens of categories, which automatically leads to division within the larger group. As people are placed into categories and grouped together, social networks and communities are created. Physical location no longer plays a role in belonging to a community and individuals may come to know and connect with other individuals without ever meeting them in person.

Consumerism: The Internet has also changed how we shop and purchase goods and services. In addition to changing the way we purchase things, the Internet has also changed the exchange of information about goods, services, and businesses. Before the Internet existed, people often relied on reviews and referrals from family and friends regarding which goods and services to buy and which to avoid.

Conclusion: The Internet has changed the way we live, interact with others, and go about our daily lives. Social interaction no longer relies on physical location, which has many implications that sociologists are interested in studying.

8. Sociology of race and Ethnicity: Race and ethnicity are important concepts in the field of sociology and are ones that are studied a great deal.

Major Sociological Theories of Race and Ethnicity

Functionalist theorists argue that in order for race and ethnic relations to be functional and contribute to the harmonious conduct and stability of society, racial and ethnic minorities must assimilate into that society. Assimilation is a process in which a minority becomes absorbed into the dominant society – socially, economically, and culturally.

Symbolic interaction theorists look at two issues in relation to race and ethnicity. First, they look at the role of social interaction and how it reduces racial and ethnic hostility. Second, they look at how race and ethnicity are socially constructed.

conflict theorists is that class-based conflict is an inherent and fundamental part of society.

9. Sociology of Gender: Gender differences exist in nearly every social phenomena. From the moment of birth, gender expectations influence how boys and girls are treated. Sociologists make a clear distinction between the terms sex and gender. Sex refers to one’s biological identity of being male or female while gender refers to the socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female. Sex is biologically assigned while gender is culturally learned.

The cultural origin of gender becomes especially apparent when we look at other cultures.

Nature Vs. Nurture In Gender Identity: There is a lot of debate about how much of a person’s gender identity, among other things, is due to their biological makeup (nature) and how much is due to their social surroundings and the way they are brought up (nurture).

Major Sociological Theories of Gender: Feminist theorists also address issues in gender and address new issues that the major theoretical frameworks do not.

Functionalist theorists argue that men fill instrumental roles in society while women fill expressive roles, which works to the benefit of society.

Symbolic interactionists look at gender from the micro perspective and examine gender stratification on a day-to-day level.

Conflict theorists view women as disadvantaged because of power inequalities between women and men that are built into the social structure.

Feminist theory emerged out of the women’s movement and aims to understand the position of women in society for the sole purpose of improving their position in society. There are four major frameworks that have developed out of feminist theory: liberal feminism, socialist feminism, radical feminism, and multiracial feminism.

10. Sociology of Education: Education is a social institution that sociologists are very interested in studying. This includes teaching formal knowledge such as reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as teaching other things such as morals, values, and ethics.

11. Sociology of Sports: Sociology of sports, also referred to as sports sociology, is the study of the relationship between sports and society. It examines how culture and values influence sports, how sports influences culture and values, and the relationship between sports and media, politics, economics, religion, race, gender, youth.

Sports And Gender: A large area of study within the sociology of sports is gender, including gender inequality and the role that gender has played in sports throughout history.

Sports And Media: Another area studied under the sociology of sports is the media. . Men’s sports that are typically viewed live or on television include basketball, football, hockey, baseball, pro wresting, and boxing while the women’s sports that are covered include gymnastics, figure skating, skiing, and diving. Men’s sports are also covered more often than women’s sports both in print and on television.

Sports And Gender Identity: is often examined under the sociology of sports. Sport reinforces gender-specific roles beginning at a young age.

12. Environmental Sociology: The association between societal well-being and environmental quality is increasingly becoming a topic of sociological interest. Environmental sociology is a sub discipline within the field of sociology that studies of the interactions between the physical environment, social organization, and social behavior. Environmental sociologists typically place special emphasis on studying the social factors that cause environmental problems, the societal impacts of those problems, and efforts to solve the problems.

13. Military Sociology: Military sociology is the sociological study of the military. It examines issues such as military recruiting, race and gender representation in the military, combat, military families, military social organization, war and peace, and the military as welfare.

14. Sociolinguistics: Language is central to social interaction in every society, regardless of location and time period.

15. Sociology of Social Inequality: Sociologists see society as a stratification system that is based on a hierarchy of power privilege and prestige which leads to patterns of social inequality.

Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. There are two main ways to measure social inequality: inequality of conditions, and inequality of opportunities.

Two Main Theories of Social Inequality: Functionalist theorists believe that inequality is inevitable and desirable and plays an important function in society. Important positions in society require more training and thus should receive more rewards. And view inequality as resulting from groups with power dominating less powerful groups. They believe that social inequality prevents and hinders societal progress as those in power repress the powerless people in order to maintain the status quo. Positions are important so long as those in power consider them to be significant.

How Sociologists Study Social Inequality: objective structural conditions, ideological supports, and social reforms.

16. Sociology of Work and Industry: No matter what society one lives in, all human beings depend on systems of production to survive.

Major Sociological Theories and Frameworks:

Symbolic Interaction Theory: The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors.

Conflict Theory: This perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources.

Functionalist Theory: The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society is functional for the stability of the whole society.

Feminist Theory: y is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better women's lives. also started to question the differences between women, including how race, class, ethnicity, and age intersect with gender. Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways women have contributed to society.

four main types of feminist theory that attempt to explain the societal differences between men and women: The gender difference perspective examines how women's location in, and experience of, social situations differ from men's. and Gender-inequality theories recognize that women's location in, and experience of, social situations are not only different but also unequal to men's. and Gender Oppression: Theories of gender oppression go further than theories of gender difference and gender inequality by arguing that not only are women different from or unequal to men, but that they are actively oppressed, subordinated, and even abused by men. Power is the key variable in the two main theories of gender oppression: psychoanalytic feminism and radical feminism. Psychoanalytic feminists attempt to explain power relations between men and women by reformulating Freud's theories of the subconscious and unconscious, human emotions, and childhood development. Radical feminists argue that being a woman is a positive thing in and of itself, but that this is not acknowledged in patriarchal societies where women are oppressed. And Structural Oppression: Structural oppression theories posit that women's oppression and inequality are a result of capitalism, patriarchy, and racism.

Critical theory is a type of social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. Critical theories aim to dig beneath the surface of social life and uncover the assumptions that keep us from a full and true understanding of how the world works. Two core concepts of critical theory are that it should be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity and that it should improve the understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology.

Labeling theory is one of the most important approaches to understanding deviant and criminal behavior. Labeling theory begins with the assumption that no act is intrinsically criminal. the more powerful and dominant groups in society create and apply deviant labels to the subordinate groups.

Social learning theory is a theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect of the development of the self. Social learning theory considers the formation of one’s identity to be a learned response to social stimuli. It emphasizes the societal context of socialization rather than the individual mind. This theory postulates that an individual’s identity is not the product of the unconscious, but instead is the result of modeling oneself in response to the expectations of others.

Social Learning Theory and Crime/Deviance: people engage in crime because of their association with others who engage in crime. Their criminal behavior is reinforced and they learn beliefs that are favorable to crime. Learning criminal or deviant behavior is the same as learning to engage in conforming behavior.

Culturally Accepted Goals Vs. Culturally Approved Means: Societies are characterized by both culture and social structure. Culture establishes goals for people in society while social structure provides the means for people to achieve those goals.

There are five Categories of People regards to their relationship to culturally accepted goals and the means to achieving those goals.

Conformists are people who believe in both the established cultural goals of society as well as the normative means for attaining those goals. They follow the rules of society.

Ritualists are individuals who do not believe in the established cultural goals of society, but they do believe in and abide by the means for attaining those goals.

Innovators are those individuals that accept the cultural goals of society but reject the conventional methods of attaining those goals. These people usually have a blatant disregard for the conventional methods that have been established in attaining wealth and are generally those we regard as criminals.

Retreatists are individuals who reject both the cultural goals and the accepted means of attaining those goals. They simply avoid both the goals and means established by society without replacing those norms with their own counter-cultural forces.

. Rebels not only reject both the established cultural goals and the accepted means of attaining those goals, but they substitute new goals and new means of attaining those goals.

Rational Choice Theory: was pioneered by sociologist George Homas, who in 1961 laid the basic framework for exchange theory, which he grounded in assumptions drawn from behavioral psychology.

Game Theory: is a theory of social interaction, which attempts to explain the interaction people have with one another. Game theory was originally an economic and mathematical theory that predicted that human interaction had the characteristics of a game, including strategies, winners and losers, rewards and punishment, and profits and cost. Game theory was first used to describe and model how human populations behave.

The prisoner’s dilemma is one of the most popular games studied in game theory that has been portrayed in countless movies and crime television shows. The prisoner’s dilemma shows why two individuals might not agree, even if it appears that it is best to agree. The prisoner’s dilemma can be applied to many other social situations, too, from political science to law to psychology to advertizing.

Assumptions Game Theorists Make · The payoffs are known and fixed. · All players behave rationally. · The rules of the game are common knowledge.

 

Sociobiology: While the term sociobiology can be traced to the 1940s, the concept of sociobiology first gained major recognition with Edward O. Wilson’s 1975 publication Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. In it, he introduced the concept of sociobiology as the application of evolutionary theory to social behavior. Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors are at lease partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection.

Critiques of Sociobiology: One critique of the theory is that it is inadequate to account for human behavior because it ignores the contributions of the mind and culture. A second critique of sociobiology is that it relies on genetic determinism, which implies approval of the status quo.