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PHIL 150 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

 

 

 

Part I.  Questions on the Mind-Body Problem.

 

1. Descartes on the Mind-Body Problem. We know that for Descartes “the mind is not part of the physical world at all.” Did Descartes allow for any linkage between the immaterial mind and the material body?  In the Introduction to Part IV, “Minds, Bodies, and Persons” the editors explain on p.306 that “Descartes theory is that there is no linkage between the mind and the body- that is why this theory is called “interactive dualism”. In fact, to him the mind, that is to say the soul, is not material and does not get corrupted, while the body is.

 

 

 

 

 

2. Bertrand Russell on the Problem of Other Minds.  In his text “The Argument from Analogy for Other Minds” Russell suggests a solution to the problem of other minds. He claims that the existence of other minds can be inferred on the basis of the principle of analogy used in scientific reasoning.  He came up with a postulate (a proposition) that defines “the assumption of probability”.  His postulate at the very end of the above text on p.306 begins with these words: “If whenever we can observe whether A and B are present or absent, we find that every case of B has an A as a causal antecedent, than it is probable that most B’s have A’s as causal antecedents, even in cases where observation does not enable us to know whether A is present or not”.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

QUESTIONS ON ALTERNATIVES TO DESCARTES

 

Most twentieth century philosophers reject Cartesian notion of an immaterial mind and insist that minds should be viewed as “parts or aspects of the physical world.” They “claim that talk about beliefs and desires and pains only seems to be talk about a nonphysical realm, but is actually just a complicated way of talking about bodies, brains, and behavior.” (p. 307). The alternative theories are advanced by G. Ryle, D.M. Armstrong and P. Churchland.

 

 

3. THEORY #1. Ryle’s Theory of Logical Behaviorism.  Ryle believed that mental states are not real at all and that the “immaterial mind” does not exist—because the mind is the brain. He criticized Descartes dualistic explanation as “the myth” of the “Ghost in the machine.”   One of the illustration which he used to demonstrate the absurdity of the “official doctrine” was the illustration about a child observing the march-past of a division. In section 2 of his text “Descartes’ Myth” on p.319 he says “The same mistake would be made by a child witnessing the march-past of a division, who, having had pointed ouyt to him such and such battalions, batteries, squadrons etc., asked when the division was going to appear, he supposed that a division was counterpart to the units already seen, partly similar and partly unlike them…the march-past was not a parade of battalions, batteries, squadrons and a division; it was a parade of the battalions, batteries and squadrons of a division”.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. THEORY #2. Armstrong’s Identity Theory.  Armstrong recognized that mental states are real, but, in difference to Descartes, mental states are quite literally identical with physical states of the brain.  That is why Armstrong’s theory is called the Identity Theory.  At the end of his text “The Nature of Mind” Armstrong concludes:  “But if we are convinced, on general scientific grounds, that a purely physical account of man is likely to be the true one, then there seems to be no bar to our identifying these inner states with purely physical states of the central nervous system”.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.        THEORY #3. PAUL CHURCHLAND’S THEORY OF ELIMINATION OF FOLK PSYCHOLOGY IN FAVOR OF NEUROSCIENTIFIC THEORY.

 

Name, and provide one sentence comment on the four examples of historical mistakes and false notions provided by Churchland which he uses to demonstrate that our folk psychological concepts of mind, feeling, fear, pain, etc. need to be replaced by neuroscientific concepts. (On the basis of the section “Historical parallels”).

  

 

6.        We know from Armstrong’s text “The Nature of Mind” that he understood consciousness as an “inner eye” of the brain that scans other parts of our nervous system. At the end of his text Armstrong concludes: “And so consciousness of our own mental state becomes simply the scanning of one part of our central nervous system.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7.        What illustration does Armstrong use to demonstrate that our consciousness is “nothing, but perception or awareness of the state of our own mind” ? And that there are times when we have an awareness of the state of our mind and there are other times when we do not. Describe Armstrong’s  illustration about driving a vehicle. What does it help us to understand? It helps us to understand that a driver is not normally conscious of what he is doing- his state of automatism aims to represent only significant objects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part II Questions on Kantian, Utilitarian and Aristotelian Ethics.

 

QUESTIONS ON KANTIAN ETHICS

 

8.        What is the major difference between Kant’s understanding of the rightness of action and utilitarian understanding?  For the utilitarian understanding, an action is morally right if it will produce, more than other possible actions, happiness among other people, while Kant distinguishes between moral duty and ethic duty of a person, so that reason determines one’s will conformed to the laws.

 

 

 

 

9.        Describe Kant’s understanding of “good will”. (On the basis of Kant’s text “Groundwork of the Mataphysic of Morals”.) “Good will” for Kant is the only thing that is absolutely, which is to say detached from other things, good.

 

 

 

 

10.     (WORTH ONLY 5 POINTS). What is the difference between the hypothetical imperative and the categorical imperative in Kant’s ethics? The first one determines what to do in order to accomplish a certain goal, while the second one determines what to do regardless one’s specific goals, so it is more general.

 

 

 

 

 

 

11.     Provide 3 illustrations of wrong actions of the person who was asked to return the borrowed funds. (On the basis of your recollection of class lecture and the Revision Handout.)  What three bad options did he have and what three wrong and abominable universal rules can be deduced from his actions? If those rules would be applied universally, what would become of human race? How does this illustration explain Kant’s “Formula of Universal Law” (which was just another way Kant used to explain the essence of his “categorical imperative”)?

 

a.        First illustration

 

 

He is unable to pay it back

 

 

b.        Second illustration

Contemplating a false promise

 

 

 

 

 

c.        Third illustration

 

Thinking that it will never happen

 

QUESTIONS ON ARISTOTELIAN ETHICS

 

 

12.     (WORTH ONLY 5 POINTS). What is the meaning of eudaimonia in Aristotle?

 

Eudaimonia means happiness in ancient Greek and excercising it through virtue is the final purpose of everyone’s life.

 

13.     (WORTH ONLY 5 POINTS). What does Aristotle understand by ergon?

 

Ergon is, in the Nicomachean Ethics, a task or a work, what a thing makes what it is.

 

 

14.     (WORTH ONLY 5 POINTS). What is the meaning of arête in Aristotle’s ethics?

 

Areté means virtue in Greek, and for Aristotle it was determined by reason (logos) and what a wise man would do.

 

 

15.     Explain Aristotle’s understanding of virtues? How does he relate virtues to happiness? (On the basis of your recollection the text Nicomachean Ethics). Provide a list of virtues according to Aristotle (Name at least four).

 

Happiness is obtained by managing in an excellent way activities that belong to the faculties of the soul. Virtues are, for example, Justice, the Right Mean, Prudence and Courage.

 

 

 

 

 

16.     Which 2 virtues did Aristotle understand to be the greatest? What is the meaning of contemplation? (On the basis of your recollection of the material in the Revision Handout)  One is Honor, the other one is Contemplation- the way philosophers run their life, that is to say seeking happiness with their own intellectual means.

 

 

 

 

 

17.     What did Aristotle understand by the Doctrine of the Mean? (On the basis of your recollection of the material in the Revision Handout) The Doctrine of the mean is, for Aristotle, something that helps us to balance our excesses or deficiencies, in order to run a virtuous life.