1 Running head: ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW Bryson Henry
Keiser University June 13, 2017 2 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Anxiety and its effect on sports performance remain an area of high interest among
researchers. Anxiety is defined as an aversive emotional experience that develops during
potentially threatening situations. Both coaches and sports psychologists are concerned
about the ability of the athletes to maintain proper emotions before and during competition
which is one of the factors that contribute to the successful sports performance. Sporting
competitions are considered as situations that elicit heightened levels of anxiety. According
to Martens, Vealey, and Burton, (1990), anxiety is said to be multidimensional and, it
constitutes two main components: Cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety.
Causes of Sport Anxiety
Anxiety can cause several outcomesaspects in sports:, it can lead to discontinuation
of sports activity and, impaired performance or less pressure during the sports. Amrhein,
Barkhoff, and Heiby (2016) conducted a study on ocean surfers to identify whether there is
a relationship between spirituality, depression, and anxiety among ocean surfers. They
found out that that surfers report fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression compared to
other normative groups. In addition, the authors found that greater spirituality is
associated with less depression and more surfing experience. This is an indication that
sports activities are likely to lead to lower levels of depression, particularly for the surfers. 3 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Other researchers have found that there is a high relationship between sports
performance and anxiety. It is obvious athletes are likely to experience injuries during their
sporting activities which may lead to an immediate disruption of the athlete’s normal life.
The injuries affect their physical health and also their psychological well-being leading to
depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. (Wiese-Bjornstal, 2010).
Williams and Leffingwell (1996) examined the effect of baseline psychological
symptoms on post-concussion symptoms. They measured and assessed the athletes based
on the exhibited post-concussion symptoms. The results indicated that concussed athletes
who had symptoms of depression at baseline are more likely to experience depression and
even more likely to experience state anxiety after a concussion. Depression at baseline is
highly likely to cause post- concussion depression and post-concussion state anxiety.
Therefore athletes with pre-injury depressive symptoms are more vulnerable; sports
psychologists, as well as coaches, must implement intervention measures that can reduce
post-concussion depression or anxiety.
Intervention Strategies 4 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Yang, Covassin and Torner (2015) investigated how cognitive approaches enhance
athletic performance as well as how athletes felt about themselves and ; how their
performance affected their feelings and behaviors. Distorted thinking patterns resulted in
emotional distress causing excessive anxiety. Sports psychologists together with coaches
should, therefore, pay close attention to the athlete’s performance before and during
competition. Coaches must alsos well be aware of their irrational beliefs because they are
likely to influence the athletes. Different cognitive techniques can be used to deal with
anxiety hence marinating appropriate attention focus.
In most sport activities individuals are advised to aim at a specific target which
requires self-regulation in order to succeed. However the success rate is affected by the
state of anxiety, when an individual is anxious their attention becomes automatically
occupied by threatening stimuli which can either be internal or external leaving less
attention for the actual task. In the long run, this leads to performance decrement. An
anxious athlete can be derived from the strength model of self-control (Behan and Wilson,
2008). 5 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Englert (2012) conducted a research and analyzed the role of self-control strength
and state anxiety in sports performance. The authors assessed the self-control strengths of
the participants and found out that that there was a statistically significant relationship
between state anxiety and free throw performance only for basketball players in a state of
ego depletion. This meant that depleted participants performed worse as their anxiety
increased. Self-control strength affected free throw performance, depending on anxiety
levels such that sports performance became stronger as state anxiety increased. There is also a phenomenon that holds that increase in anxiety is likely to increase
mental errors during athletes contest. Performance decrements occur under the conditions
of elevated anxiety due to errors that occur prior to information processing. This is caused
by attention disruption. Bird and Horn (1990) investigated the relationship between the
level of cognitive anxiety and the degree of mental errors in sports setting. They found out
that elevations of cognitive anxiety are directly related to mental errors that occur during
sports performance. Therefore mental errors in sports can be reduced using cognitive
based strategies. Thus individuals who exhibit more mental errors should have high
cognitive anxiety compared to those who demonstrate few mental errors. 6 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Vast (2010) conducted a research study to explore attentional patterns associated
with positive and negative emotions during sports competition as well as the athlete’s
concentration and performance. They found out that the extent to which athletes
experienced emotions was low. Concentration was positively correlated with self-rated
performance. Happiness and excitement were positively correlated which was the same
case for the negative emotions anxiety, dejection, and anger. Thus the potentially
detrimental effect of emotions on concentration and performance can be negated through
maintaining or promptly regaining task-relevant focus and automaticity of movement.
Robinson (2015) investigated the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty
(IU), sports confidence and performance anxiety in sports among athletes. They measured
the sports confidence, performance anxiety, and IU. The results indicated that IU was
positively correlated with performance anxiety and negatively correlated with the
robustness of sports confidence; performance anxiety and robustness of sports confidence
were negatively correlated. 7 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Previous researchers have suggested different intervention strategies that both the
sports psychologists and coaches should put in place in order to cope with anxiety during
sports. Most researchers suggest that cognitive behavior intervention is the best strategy.
Thus, considerable attention has been given to assessing the impact of specific intervention
strategies on modifying or altering emotions and improving subsequent sports
performance. Prapavessis, Grove, and Cable (1992) studied the effectiveness of a cognitive
behavioral intervention in reducing state anxiety and improving sports performance. They
found out that that cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, gun vibration, and urinary
catecholamines decreased whereas self-confidence and performance increased from
baseline to treatment. Cognitive behavioral intervention program reduced state anxiety and
improved performance.
Another intervention strategy is the electroencephalograph (EEG) biofeedback, it is
a relatively new mode of applied psychophysiological intervention within sports
psychology which is primarily used to train attention (Carlstedt, 2001). Sports
psychologists, coaches, and athletes can take the advantage by integrating (EEG)
biofeedback into applied interventions hence maximizing psychological skills of alertness
and concentration (Davis, 2005). Athletes are also likely to develop vital tools that increase
their self-confidence and minimize attention altering effect due to anxiety. If self-confidence
increases, the hitting and fielding performance improves dramatically. 8 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
The Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) was developed as an objective
measure by which an individual's attentional predisposition could be identified and used to
predict performance on a variety of tasks. Albrecht (1987) assessed the reliability and the
advantages of employing a sports task specific measure of attentional style by comparing it
to the general measure of attention process. After measuring each individual attention
style, they found out that batting performance was positively related to all B-TAIS.
Significant positive correlations existed between B-TAIS ineffective subscale scores and
competitive trait anxiety.
The theory of attention style as proposed by Nideffer (1981) pointed out that at any
particular point in time an individual's attentional focus ranges somewhere along a
continuum between broad and narrow. He also explained how athletic performance is may
be related to one's predisposition toward a particular style of attention. He explained three
major changes in attention that are likely to occur as the level of anxiety increases which
include an increase in the level of competitive arousal, athletes becomes locked into their
his or her preferred attentional style, increase in the level of competitive arousal and lastly
athletes one's tendency to become more internally focused. References
Albrecht, R. R. (1987). Generality and Specificity of Attention Belated to Competitive Anxiety
and Sport Performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9(3), 231-248. Retrieved from
https://www.coursehero.com/qa/attachment/2753783/ 9 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Amrhein, M., Barkhoff, H., & Heiby, E. M. (2016). Spirituality, depression, and anxiety among
ocean surfers. Journal Of Clinical Sport Psychology, 10(2), 155-171.
doi:10.1123/jcsp.2015-0016
Behan, M., & Wilson, M. (2008). State anxiety and visual attention: The role of the quiet eye
period in aiming to a far target. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 207–215. PubMed
doi:10.1080/02640410701446919
Bird, A. M. (1990). Cognitive anxiety and mental errors in sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology, 12(3), 217-222. Retrieved from
https://www.coursehero.com/qa/attachment/2753794/
Carlstedt, R. (2001, Winter). Ambulatory psychophysiology and ecological validity in studies of
sports performance: Issues and implications for intervention protocols in biofeedback.
Biofeedback, 29, 18 –22
Davis, P. A., & Sime, W. E. (2005). Toward a psychophysiology of performance: Sport
psychology principles dealing with anxiety. International Journal Of Stress Management,
12(4), 363-378. doi:10.1037/1072-5245.12.4.363
Englert, C. &. (2012). Anxiety, ego depletion, and sports performance. Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 34(5), 580-599. Retrieved from
https://www.coursehero.com/qa/attachment/2753786/
Martens, R., Vealey, R. S., & Burton, D. (1990). Competitive anxiety in sport. Human kinetics. 10 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Nideffer, R.M. (1980). The role of attention in optimal athletic performance. In P. Klavora & J.
Daniel (Eds.), Coach, athlete, and the sport psychologist (pp. 92-112). Toronto:
University of Toronto, School of Physical and Health Education
Prapavessis, H., Grove, J. R., McNair, P. J., & Cable, N. T. (1992). Self-regulation training, state
anxiety, and sport performance: A psychophysiological case study. The Sport
Psychologist, 6(3), 213-229.
Robinson, G. &. (2015). Intolerance of Uncertainty as a Predictor of Performance Anxiety and
Robustness of Sport Confidence in University Student-Athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport
Psychology, 9(4), 335-344. Retrieved from
https://www.coursehero.com/qa/attachment/2753784/
Vast, R. L. (2010). Emotions in sport: Perceived effects on attention, concentration, and
performance. Australian Psychologist, 45(2), 132-140. Retrieved from
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Emotions+in+sport
%3A+Perceived+effects+on+attention%2C+concentration
%2C+and+performance&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5
Wiese-Bjornstal, D. (2010). Psychology and sociocultural affect injury risk, response, and
recovery in high-intensity athletes: A consensus statement. Scandinavian Journal of
Medicine & Science in Sports, 20, 103–111.
Williams, J. M., & Leffingwell, T. R. (1996). Cognitive strategies in sport and exercise
psychology. In J. L. Van Raalte, B. W. Brewer, J. L. Van Raalte, B. W. Brewer (Eds.) ,
Exploring sport and exercise psychology (pp. 51-73). Washington, DC, US: American
Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10186-003 11 ANXIETY AND SPORTS LITERATURE REVIEW
Yang, J., Peek-Asa, C., Covassin, T., & Torner, J. C. (2015). Post-concussion symptoms of
depression and anxiety in Division I collegiate athletes. Developmental Neuropsychology,
40(1), 18-23. doi:10.1080/87565641.2014.973499

Attachments:

• 1506697973-Henry7.docx